Communication: is the process of transmitting

information from one person to another.

Communication is the process of by which
information is transmitted between individual and
or organizations so that an understanding
response results. Communication is an exchange
of facts, ideas, opinions, or emotions by two or
more persons; The main purpose of
communication is to bring round to a certain point
of view.
 Business communication is the expression
channeling, receiving and interchanging of
ideas in commerce and industry.
Communication is the exchange of
information that is mutually understood.
When you send a message, the person
receiving the message should understand
what you mean. There is no misinterpretation
& no misunderstanding. Everyone
understands communication has occurred.
 Business communication is a system, and as a system, it is
affected by any change within the total organization. Every
system has three components: Input, process & Output.
The business communication system is no exception. The
input into the communication system is data that may take
several different forms- Oral, written or nonverbal. The
data are than processed; it is first encoded (translated into
a form for transmission), then transmitted by a signal, and
then decoded (interpreted). The out put of the system is
information conveyed through words, numbers, and
action. The final link in the system is feedback, which
provides both the sender & the receiver with assurance
that the message was interpreted as intended.
 For communication to take place there must be some
one who wishes to communicate something (Sender),
something to be communicated (message) and
someone to receive the message (receiver). Feedback
must be provided within the communication system
to make certain that mutual understanding is
achieved. The sender initiates the message, using
language (oral, written or non-verbal that a best
describer what is to be conveyed. The message is
given through a medium (words, numbers, actions)
that expresses the thoughts intent to sender. The
receiver of the message interprets it and them
provides feedback that always the sender to evaluate
whether the intended message was received.
 Any type of organized activity demands
communication. Communication plays a vital
role in implementing the managerial
functions of planning, organizing, directing,
coordinating, motivating and controlling.
However it is particularly important in the
function of directing. Communication is like a
skeleton, which holds together all the known
managerial function and in its absence the
whole structure of managerial function will
fall apart.
 It is the means by which behavior is modified,
change is effected, information is made
productive and goals are achieved. It is the
means by which peoples are linked together
in an organization in order to achieve a
central purpose. Group activity is impossible
without information transfer because, without
it, coordination and change can’t be effected.
It is the means by which organized activity is
unified.
 Today the managerial & operating jobs are divided
amongst different set of people and under the
situation many facts & ideas must pass one person to
another, plans, objectives & goal of the organization
must be communicated to those who will be involved
in carrying out the project. Since management is
getting things done through others it is and obvious
requirement that the managers communicate with the
members of the organization. It has been estimated
that a manager spends 90% of his time
communicating company either sending or receiving
information. Only through good communication
company policies & practices can be formulated &
administrated.
 Only with effective communication
misunderstanding can be coordinated &
controlled. The success of all managerial
functions depends on successful communication.
The achievement of enterprise goal is of all
paramount importance and that communication
is one of the important tools available to
manager in seeking to attain them.
Communication is useful in improving the
employee relations, union relation.
Communication involves in exchange of facts,
feeling & information two or more person &
provides the means of putting people into action
is an organization.
 We are now ready to look at an expanded view of
how communication occurs. One-way
communication involves five steps.
 Step 1: Stimulus to communicate – The first step
in the communication process is the decision
made by the sender to communicate a message.
Messages may, however, be formed in ones mind
as a result of an impulse, a feeling, a train of
thought or an external stimulus of some kind.
One may then decide to consciously or
unconsciously communicate the idea or not at all.
 Step 2: Encoding the message – Before a message is
sent to its recipient, sender needs encode it in an
appropriate language.
 Verbal: Spoken words or Written words
 Non-Verbal: Pictures, graphs, symbols – Numbers-
facial expression, body posture and motions
 A mixture of verbal & non-verbal
 Step 3: Once the appropriate language has been
chosen, the sender needs to select the right medium
through which the message will be transmitted. The
selected medium of communication will usually come
under one of the broad headings of:
 Visual–Chart, Graph, picture or screen display
 Written – A letter, memorandum, note, report
 Oral – face to face discussion, telephone
conversation
 Step 4: Decoding of Message – The first step in
communication from the receivers point of view
is the decoding of message that, understands
what the sender of the message says. This
involves:
 A. Grasping the meaning of the words or symbols
used by the sender;
 B. Interpreting the message as a whole
 Step – 5: Giving of Feedback – Feedback is the
receivers reaction indicating to the sender
whether or not the message has been;
understood and correctly interpreted. This is
an important and sometimes neglected
aspect of communication. Feedback creates a
two-way process or cycle, rather than a
simple send-receive relationship.
 There are many barriers to communicating
effectively with others. Primary among these
barriers are differences in perception caused by
varying experiences, educating & Background
 Differences in perception – The experiences you
have either at work or in your personal life
influence the way you interpret messages.
 Educational Levels affect the way you interpret
messages. Educational experience influences
your interpretations of messages, and you be
aware of this factor as you communicate with
others. Educational levels often affect your
vocabulary levels as well as your understanding
of words.
 Technical Language – Unless communication
take place among people who have the same
or similar job training or positions, the use of
technical language impedes understanding. If
a production manager is discussing a
particular production problem with the
supervisor of purchasing, the chances that
mutual understanding will be achieved are
greatly improved by discussing the problem
in non technical terms.
 Managers may communicate to subordinates
in many different forms, some example as
follows:
 Directives: Organizational policies &
procedures are communicated to employees
through directives. These may be sent only
employees who are directly affected by them
or may be widely distributed for informational
purpose.
 Posters: to be effective, posters must be eye
catching, have something to say that interest the
workers and be displayed in place where workers
will see them
 Bulletin Boards: Most effective when they are
placed where employees typically congregate,
bulletin boards must also be kept up to date, be
neat and attractive, and display messages of
interest.
 Company Periodicals: Well-written articles placed
in company periodicals are another method of
communicating information.
 Employee Handbooks: When workers are
hired, they may be given an employee
handbook. They should be encouraged to
read the handbook, for it usually contain
information regarding employee
responsibilities & benefits.
 Memos: One of the most frequently used
forms of business communication, especially
among departments, is memos. Memos
provide a format for a concise message.
 Loudspeaker: the effectiveness of a
loudspeaker as a method of communicating
information depends largely on how often it
is used and for what purpose but its absolute
effective tool if it is used in correct manner.
 Letters & Pay Inserts: Most people pay
attention to what is put in a pay envelop;
therefore, inserts often catch the attention of
employees.
 Information should be distributed to
employees who will be affected and have a
need to know. The information should clearly
communicated in as much detail as the
employees need to perform their jobs better.
The effectiveness of downward
communication is determined largely by the
willingness of managers to share information
with subordinates. Sharing information also
builds trust and minimize confusion among
the managers & subordinates.
 The purpose of upward communication is to
provide information to managers from
subordinates. During the past decade, the
concepts of participative management,
involving employees in decision making, has
become more popular. Because participative
management requires increased interaction
among many levels of employees, upward
communication has attracted more attention
and assumed greater importance.
 Information may be communicated to superiors
in a number of ways, Such as:
 Reports: is the most frequently used method for
upward communication. Reports may be oral or
written, formal or informal, lengthy or short.
 Complaint & suggestion boxes: Boxes for
depositing complaints & suggestions are
effective when both employee & manager view
them as a legitimate source of information. A
schedule & procedures for collecting and
reviewing the suggestions & complaints should
be established.
 Open-Door Policy: The availability of
managers to employees through an open-
door policy reflects managerial
encouragement of open communication
among all levels of employees.
 Grievance procedure: A form of upward
communication, grievance procedure allow
employees of formal channel of appeal
beyond the authority of their immediate
supervisors.
 Questionnaires & Surveys: Managers may obtain
information about employee attitudes, morale,
views of the organization, relationships between
managers and subordinates through
questionnaires & surveys.
 Informers: Subordinates may supply information
to managers, either voluntarily or by request but
be aware of distrust & lowered morale
 Special Meetings: Employees may call special
meeting to discuss items of mutual interest with
managers.
 The effectiveness of upward communication
is determined by the attitudes of managers
toward participative management and the
confidence managers have in their employee.
When participation is encouraged, more
upward communication occurs. When
managers have confidence in the abilities of
their employees, they usually welcome
workers input.
 Horizontal communication occurs between
employees at generally equal levels in an
organization, for example, between
supervisor & department head, vice president
& vice president, executive secretary &
administrative assistant. The conditions are
quite different when horizontal
communication take place; here information
is exchanged between people at roughly the
same level of the hierarchy. The emphasis is
on sharing information.
 Organizations are dependent on outside
communication to generate the business that
enables them to survive, grow and profit.
Internal communication is important in terms
of efficient management and operation of the
business, but external communication is
clearly essential.
 Communicating with individuals: Individual
contact is made with the people outside the
organization, with customers, clients,
suppliers, other professionals & peers.
 Customers & Clients: An organizations survival &
growth depend on effective communication with
current or potential customers. Individual
contacts may be made orally or in writing.
Regardless of the form, these contacts are
essential to establishing, maintaining and
developing business relationships with
customers & clients.
 Suppliers: communication must be made with
individuals who supply the products or services
required for efficient operation in the business.
In communicating with suppliers , it is essential
that there be no confusion or misunderstanding
regarding the requirements of the business.
 Other Professional: Communicating with
professional in other fields – Lawyers,
accountants, contractors is often necessary.
So that these professionals can help achieve
the company’s goals, the communication
channel must be open, providing a clear
understanding of companies needs relative to
the services available from the professionals.
 Groups of people convene for several basic
purposes:
 A) To exchange ideas & information
 B) To recommend action
 C) To generate ideas
 D) To make decision
 These purposes can be accomplished in
either small or large groups. Participant may
represents their own individual interest, the
interests of their company or the interests of
the profession or industry.
 Small Groups: Small groups may meet as
committees or boards, in break-away
sessions at large conference, in workshops,
and as members of small organizations.
Meeting in small groups provides
opportunities for exchanging information and
opinions and for generating ideas. Participant
must be able to communicate their views in a
way that makes people listen. Good ideas are
often lost because of someone’s inability to
communicate.
 Large Groups: Participant in large is often
limited; there may be little opportunity to
share views and generate new ideas. Large
groups, however do provide opportunities to
grow personally and professionally.
Conference at which knowledgeable speakers
communicate effectively to the audience offer
opportunities for growth.
 On a personal level you communicate with fellow
employees in the workplace, with family and with
the friends. The way in which the communication
take place depends on what you have established
as your own system of communicating with
others.
 The three basic operational communication
networks are open, restricted and closed.
 Open networks: When you use open networks,
you communicate with people openly in a two-
way flow. Open communication allows free
exchange of opinions, information & ideas with
others. Feedback can be provided freely & openly
without any fear.
 Restricted networks: when restricted
networks are used, there is still two way
communication flow. This flow, however, is
through one pivotal person rather than by
two-way exchange between a numbers of
people.
 Closed Network: When a closed network is
only a one way flow of information. The
network is essentially closed except as
communication is allowed by the person
providing the information.
 Experienced writers use the plan-write-revise
approach to writing to increase the effectiveness of
their communications and the probability that the
communications will produce the desired action.
 Plan: if the message is non-routine or difficult, you
should make complete notes during the planning
stage, followed be detailed outline. If the message is
routine or simple, you may not need to put your
planning steps in writing at all; with experience you
may be able to plan the entire message mentally. The
average message requires at least some planning.
Written notes can make the process easier and the
results more effective.
 Write: With the plan-write-revise approach, once
the planning stage is completed implementation
can begin. When you have outlined your
message, you should be sure that you have
answered, as appropriate, the questions who?
what? when? Why? Where? And how?
 Kipling’s six honest serving men will serve you
well if you apply them to writing your message.
For example: Why am I writing this
correspondence? How shall I present my
message? What background information do I
need? Where shall I tell my reader the unpleasant
news? Who needs to have this information?
 Revise: Time spent in writing process may be
divided in a way that only 25percent of the
time is spent in the actual writing process; 75
percent of the time is spent in preparing and
perfecting the message. Revision means
being objective about your writing and
analyzing the message in order to strengthen
it.
 Effective writers use the 5 C’s of writing: clear,
concise, complete, correct & courteous.
 Is the message clear? Is it concise? Does it
include all the information needed? Is it
grammatically correct? Is the letter courteous?
 Unclear: I can recommend him as an employee
without any question.
 Clear: I can recommend him as a highly qualified
employee.
 Concise: should eliminate irrelevant &
unnecessary words. Business writing should
convey message as efficiently as possible.
Implementation of the principles of effective
writing-clarity, conciseness, completeness,
courtesy & correctness required the use of
effective writing techniques.
Write for readers: The most important of the
techniques for effective writing is to write for the
reader. Put yourself in the reader’s place by
thinking about how you would react to the
message if you were in the receiver and not the
writer. Putting yourself in the readers place
means neither overestimating nor
underestimating your reader.
 Keep sentence short: check the sentence length
of your message. If most of the sentence exceed
fifteen to twenty words, consider breaking up
long sentence into shorter ones. Put separate
ideas in separate sentence. This practice allows
you to keep sentences shorter and makes for
better understanding.
 Use Paragraph Break: Paragraphs breaks are uses
to divide the text into readable units. This
division requires that writers think in terms of
main and supporting ideas, and its improves
readability by unbroken blocks of words.
 Use short, simple words: Use words the
reader easily understand. Long words are
rarely necessary. The short, simple wording is
more effective.
 Avoid Jargon: Jargon is pompous, trite &
abstract language. Would I say to a client, “I
acknowledge receipt of your letter” or would I
say, “Thank you for your letter”? Would I say,
“I regret to inform you that I am in error” or
would I say simply , “I am sorry” or “I made a
mistake”?
 Avoid Trite words & Phrases: Some expressions are over used and out of date.
Some of these words & expressions include (but are not limited to) the following:
 Avoid: Use:
 Enclosed please find We are enclosing
 Of the present time Now
 As per your order As you ordered
 Deem it advisable Think it is advisable
 Beg to differ Disagree
 Involve the necessity of demand requires
 During the time that while
 By means of By
 The same times as while
 At an early date soon
 At the present writing now
 In order to to
 This point & Time Now
 Not withstanding the fact that Although
 Use Active Words: Use action words so that carry
your message along at a brisk pace. The reader
should not have to slow down to understand it.
 Use of Natural Style: Business letters can be
warm, natural, and brief. Long letters, written in
stilted (Overformal), written in formal style, are
not the most effective letters.
 Proofread Carefully: A well-written message may
be ruined cause it was not read carefully for
errors that occurred when the message was
prepared. You must assume responsibility for
proofreading your own material.
 Avoid Use
 Some identical Identical
 Final Outcome Outcome
 Careful scrutiny Scrutiny
 Completely destroyed Destroyed
 Advance Planning Planning
 Basic fundamentals Fundamentals
 Surrounded on all sides Surrounded
 Raining outside Raining
 Cooperated Together Cooperated
 Refer back Refer
 Repeat again Repeat
 Revert Back Revert
 Use the “You” Approach: The “You” approach
is the old standby everyone equates with a
good message. It is simply another way of
saying “Remember your reader” or “Keep the
reader in mind as you write”.
 Readability Checks: Written communications
should be at a level the reader can easily
understand. Generally, readability is
measured in terms of difficulty of the
vocabulary, the length of the sentences, and
the number of personal words & phrases.
 How many people have you talked with today?
How many different roles did these people play
family members, friends, classmates, co-
workers, sales people, customers, professionals?
Did you communicate with each of them in a
different way verbally or nonverbally? Each of
these contacts, if handled effectively, affords you
the opportunity to share information and to
convey a good impression of yourself or those
you represent.
 Clear oral communication requires you to follow
many of the same guidelines as you do for
written communication. Lets briefly review some
of these guidelines.
 Know what you want to say: before beginning to
speak, have a definite idea of what you want to
say. Mentally plan your opening remarks as well
as general content of what you want to convey.
 Consider your listeners point of View: Your
listener may have an entirely different point of
view from your own, rarely with everyone you talk
will agree completely with everything you say.
Therefore, you must take your listeners view into
consideration. How does the listener feel now,
and how will the the listener react to your
message?
 Move from the simple to the complex: If communication
involves more than conveying routine information, it
becomes important to plan the order of items to be
discussed, moving from the simple to the complex. Unlike
a reader, a listener does not have the opportunity to
reread and recognize your verbal communication.
Background information required for understanding
should precede the presentation of new ideas or topics for
further discussion.
 Select words carefully: In one to one conversations and
group meetings, you don’t have the luxury of reviewing &
rephrasing your words as you can if you are
communicating in writing. Therefore, before you speak,
you should be conscious of your listeners backgrounds &
select your words carefully to communicate your message
clearly, without offending them. Try to be sensitive to the
ways your words may be interpreted.
 Enunciate clearly: You must speak clearly and
enunciate (pronounce/express) your words, or
you will not be understood. Mumbling (tongue-
tied/hesitant) or letting syllabus or entire words
trial off and get lost conveys a lack of concern for
the listener, as well as a lack of confidence in
your speech.
 Use the active Voice: The active voice is
understood more easily because it is both clear &
direct. Using the active voice will help you speak
more concisely, too, for it puts the action right
up front. For example, say “Suzana called me”
rather than “I was called by Suzana”.
 Be Courteous and Natural: No one likes to
deal with people who put on airs or put
themselves up. Most people readily recognize
an artificial attitude and find, it, at best,
unpleasant and annoying and, at worst,
dishonest. A natural & forthright manner
leads to the most effective communication.
 In Carrying out our business responsibilities, we may
need to communicate verbally in one to one
conversation. In task force & committee work, in
formal meeting, and by telephone. Some special
techniques for handling each of these situations are
discussed in this section.
 One-to-one Conversations: Every appointment held
between two people may be classified as a meeting.
Even the most casual conversation beside the copy
machine or dinning room can have a significant
impact in your career. It is easy to focus on careful
speech at structured meetings and to be too informal
in casual conversations with other workers, especially
if you are an inexperienced worker.
 Preparation for the meeting:
 1) Establish the objectives & purpose.
 2) Determine critical points for discussion
 3) Gather the necessary background information
 4) Determine possible solutions
 5) Select & prepare meeting site
 Task Force Committee work: Participating in
small working groups such as task forces or
committees also provides some special
communicating challenges. Working groups
typically focus on particular topics or projects,
giving each participant a common goal;
Pre-meeting Activities: You may be responsible for securing
a meeting room, notifying participants, arranging seating,
controlling the physical environment and generally
overseeing the meeting arrangements. If you are
responsible for all these pre meeting arrangements,
delegate as many of the routine arrangements as possible.
You should, however, check the room before other
participants arrive to be sure all arrangements is complete.
As chairperson, you should prepare & distribute an agenda
to all participants. Agendas serve to speed meetings along
& keep them on track. Agendas allow the chairperson to
handle meeting easily and tactfully. As a general rule,
distribute agendas 7 to 10 days before the meeting. As
chairperson, you should begin the meeting at the time
schedule, whether everyone is present or not. If you
develop a reputation for starting on time, participants will
soon realize that you respect the value of their time.
 Post meeting activities
 Although the post meeting activities are primarily written rather
than verbal, cause they are a part of the chairperson’s
responsibilities, they are included in the chapter.
 One of the most important post meeting activities is follow up
summaries. Sometimes a secretary will record minutes, but since
minutes should include only action taken, summary is extremely
helpful. Summaries serve several important functions:
 1) Everyone receives identical written confirmation of the
proceeding.
 2) Written confirmation of task assignments eliminates any
confusion about responsibilities.
 3) Summaries provide a clear statement of decision reached and
votes taken
 4) Summaries provide for both participant and absentees.
 The meeting summary should include the
following items:
 1) Time, date, place of meeting & Chairperson
 2) Names of those present (if meeting size
permits)
 3) All agenda items discussed and all decisions
reached
 4) If action is agreed on, record & underline
names of person assigned tasks
 5) Time the meeting ended
 6) Date, time, & place of next scheduled meeting
 7) Statement of appreciation or vote of thanks.
 Telephone conversation: One of the most common types of
verbal business communication is the telephone conversation.
When using the telephone, clarity is desirable. You never know
how busy someone is when you call them, so be courteous, brief
& clear. Cover the necessary topics but without excessive
conversation.
 Business Report: Presenting business report is another form of
verbal communication.
One features common to all forms of verbal business
communication is the need to sum up at the conclusion of the
meeting. Whether the meeting has been a one to one meeting,
task force or committee work or a formal meeting, the need is
same. Even though a written summary will be distributed later,
summing up at the time of meeting is important. This procedure
concludes the meeting in an organized manner, reminding the
participants of what was agreed on and what was accomplished.
 Some communication is neither written nor
oral. Many thoughts & expressed by means
other than the written or spoken word
through nonverbal communication. The eight
types of nonverbal communication are
silence, body language, gestures, facial
expressions, voice intonation, touch, space &
distance and personal appearance.
 The purpose of of Graphic & Visual Aids
 Planning is 50% of any job or task you undertake. When you are making
a written or an oral presentation, its important to plan all graphic and
visual aids.
 1) To support your presentation: to back up what are you saying. These
aids will bring attention to the information you are presenting orally or
in the body of a written report.
 2) To clarify the meaning of your discussion, oral or written. Providing
more information can clear up any misconceptions your audience may
have.
 3) To gain or regain, your audience’s attention on important points;
forcing mental participation through the use of graphic or visual aids
can wake up an audience that has been listening or reading for an
extended period.
 4) To add variety to your written or oral presentation. Listening to the
same voice or reading long pages of text can be very boring.
 It has often been said that a picture is worth a thousand words. This is
true of graphs, charts & other graphic and visual aids.
 These six criteria for graphic and visual aids apply to both
written & oral presentations.
 1) Appropriate is the aid appropriate for the presentation, the
subject matter, the audience & the place? For example, you don’t
want to show a non-projector slide show focused on two 6’X8’
screens to four people –they would be overwhelmed (weighed
down).
 2) Relevant is the aid relevant to the segment of the subject
being discussed? Use aid close to the related points of
discussion. In written presentation, this can be difficult.
 3) Visible graphic & visual aids should be visible to all. When you
are giving an oral presentation, whether the room seats 100 or
10, the very last person in the very last row should be able to see
your aid.
 4) Clear your audience must be able to determine what it is they
are seeing. If the material readily understandable, be sure your
explanation make it so.
 5) Simple Simplicity provides impact. The main
principle applies here: “keep it simple”. Long involved
explanations of a graphic are often confusing. The
most successful aids are very simple.
 6) Manageable visuals, such as charts, graphs,
pictures, maps, & drawings in a written presentation
produced on 8 ½” by 11” paper must conform to the
size of the report. It is critical to unfold a 17 by 22
inch map from within the pages. Its also difficult to
bind a report including such a visual.
 The bottom line is this: you need to maintain your
composure, your presentation, and your visuals
simultaneously. Planning your visuals carefully
according to these guidelines will allow you to do just
that.
 The number of different types of graphic & visual aids
is endless. The most effective are discussed here.
 Headings, Bullets, Numbers, & White Space Visual
design within a written report can be more useful
than most readers know. The use of headings,
subheadings, bullet lists-listed items proceeded by or
numbered and lettered lists, and even white space
are often termed “intellectual graphics”. That is, these
graphics can be used to guide the mind of the reader
& to assist the reader in locating important
information at a later time. Well planned headings &
subheadings emphasize the important points within a
report. They serve as an outline of the subject being
discussed and are therefore very useful to readers.
 Bullets, numbers, & letters help to simplify the
facts. Appropriate, pertinent, visible, clear,
simple & manageable. These six points could
than be elaborated upon in paragraph form.
White space in a written presentation can work in
your favor. It can be compared to a speakers
pause. Just as a speakers silence stands out &
attracts attention.
 All these headings, subheadings, bullets,
numbers, letters and white space are frequently
seen in written presentations. However, they can
be used as effectively in graphics & visual aids
used with an oral presentation.
 Tables: Webster would tell us that a table is a
systematic arrangement of data, usually in rows &
columns for ready reference, as in a table of contents.
These can range from brief and simple to long and
complex. Whatever their size, table save time for your
reading or listening audience. Depending on your
audience and the formality, necessary tables in
written reports follow certain standard.
 1) Table number & title listed above the table, title or
legends should be carefully worded to indicate what
is displayed.
 2) Headings & Subheadings It is best of all headings
to have parallel grammatical form throughout the
table. Column headings have one form and
subheadings another.
 Number of US Life insurance companies in business, year
end 1990
 Commenced stock Mutual Total
 Business
 1875 & prior 8 23 31
 1876-1925 96 31 127
 1926-1950 161 39 200
 1951-1960 328 19 347
 1961-1970 422 16 438
 1971-1980 578 4 582
 1981-1990 357 0 357
 Total 1950 132 2082
 Sources: American Council of Life insurance
 3) Insert tables where the reader expects to find them and
can refer to them easily
 4) Place the table as close as possible to the related text. If
the table is extensive, you may need to place it on a
separate page.
 5) Reference to an earlier table should include the table
number & page number on which it can be found.
 6) Simple, clear logic should govern all tables, they should
be as easy as possible to read.
 7) Column headings & Line headings should be arranged
in some order alphabetic, chronologic.
 8) Number should be aligned at the decimal place
 9) Footnotes can provide the source of the information
 Graphs: Often information presented in a graph provides a
visual impact which your words do not have. There are
many types of graphs: bar graphs, line graphs, divided bar
graphs, circle graphs. Certain guidelines must be followed
in the preparation of graph as well.
 1) keep the graph simple so that your audience can easily
grasp the information. Include only essential facts.
 2) Make sure the graph is large enough to be seen clearly.
 3) Make the divisions within your graph agree. Compare
dollars to dollars and orange to orange.
 4) Consider your purpose and make your graph on orderly
representation of the information you are conveying. Lets
say smaller to larger.
 5) Make your graph fit the format of yours presentation.
 6) Your graph can be as attractive as you wish. By using
color, heavy lines, shading.
 Charts: Line charts, often called line graphs, are
possibly the most popular charts and are used
extensively by engineers, scientists, and technical
experts. They plot the behavior of two variables an
independent and a dependent.
 Diagrams & drawings: Diagrams & drawings lend
themselves to any report or presentation why?
Because you can include as much or as little
information as you want. Technical specialists have
come to depend on drawings. Repair people secure
schematic drawing of equipment on which they work.
 Map: Another useful graphic aid is the Map. It can be
as efficient as drawings and diagrams in that you can
include only the part that applies to your
presentation.
 Photographs: Photography differs from the
drawings & diagrams in purpose and function.
Drawings and diagrams are designed to reach the
mind of the audience. Photography is generally
used to reach the eyes of your audience.
Photography within a presentation provides
variety.
 Cartoons & Illustrations: Cartoons and
illustrations can add humor to a report of
presentation. They can also add impact through
the use of caricatures and imaginative figures.
Needless to say, cartoons & illustrations can
heighten an audiences interest.
 Presentations are usually intended to inform, convince or
entertain. As a speaker, you may wish to inform the audience
about a proposed project and at the same time convince your
listeners to approve and fund the project. Another speaker may
target his or her remarks to sell a product while entertaining the
audience with amusing stories relating to the industry. The
speaker may include interpretations, opinions, and assumptions
along with the presentation of facts. When you listen to an
informative presentation. Be aware that the speaker probably has
opinions about the facts and is likely to present them in a way
that conveys a desired message about them. Presentation
intended primarily to convince the listener to take some kind of
action usually employ sales techniques to accomplish this
purpose. Presentation intended primarily to entertain are usually
limited to luncheon or after dinner occasions or are to put
audiences in a receptive mood for more serious presentation to
follow.
 Regardless of the type of presentation –informative, convincing,
or entertaining- all presentations require careful planning,
detailed preparation, effective delivery and evaluate feedback.
 Identify the audience: The best prepared presentation delivered
to wrong audience will be ineffective. The presentation must be
appropriate to those who hear it. To ensure its suitability, the
speaker should know the expectations and needs of the
listeners. Identifying individual biases attitudes of the listeners
toward your presentation topic is helpful.
 Out line the content: After identifying your audience, the next
step is to plan the content of the presentation. When planning
the presentation, you should gather more than enough
information so that you can be selective as you begin to organize
the content. The best technique for developing a well organized
presentation is to outline the topic. Most presentations are
organized into three primary sections; introduction, body and
conclusion.
 Include Humor: Humor, relative to the topic, enhance
a presentation. Use of humor often returns the
audience to the mainstream of the presentation.
Humor may be used as the tools to regain the
attention. Humor should use effectively, humor must
be appropriate, humor should be relevant to the
topics. Keep the jokes short, deliver the humorous
lines with confidence.
 Select Audiovisual Aids & Materials: Audiovisual aids
should be selected only if they enhance the
presentation. This has to be appropriate to the
topics, the room arrangement and the size of the
audience. They should also be easy to use, readily
available and in working order.
 To get ready for a presentation, you must figure out what you are going
to say, Where you are going to say it and what kind of audiovisual aids &
equipment you will need.
 Determine the Time available: The amount of time you have for your
presentation will determine the amount of material that can be covered
as well as the depth in which you can explore the topic. If a short time
has been allotted for your presentation, you would be wise to limit your
remarks of a few major points and develop these points to the best of
your ability within the time constraints. Longer periods, of course, allow
you to expand the topic and develop the subject more fully.
 Identifying the facilities available: Information about the meeting
facilities is extremely helpful in preparing the presentation. The size &
type of the room will influence your decision about what audiovisual aids
to incorporate into your presentation. The size of the room often limits
according to the size of the audience. If visual aids are planned, you
should inquire whether there is a permanently fixed projection screen in
the room and if so, where it is located and whether it has a light.
 Prepare Audiovisual Aids: Audiovisuals, when used,
should be an integral part of the presentation. As
such, the aids should not be treated as an
afterthought. Too many speaker carefully plan their
presentations and then try to plug in the audiovisual.
 Determine the equipment Available: A professionally
prepared three projector slide tape presentation is of
little value if only one projector available for the
presentation. Be sure to be specific in stating your
needs for audiovisual equipment.
 Rehearse the presentation: The best advice that can
be given about rehearsing the presentation is to
practice until you can deliver the presentation without
hesitating, and fell confident that you are ready.
 Perhaps the greatest challenge to a presenter comes during
delivery of the presentation. However, a presentation that has
been carefully planned, properly prepared, and rehearsed,
should be a positive experience.
 Use notes & other cues: few people are able to memorize an
entire presentation. At the same time fewer people respond
positively to having a speech read to them. It can be resolved by
using notes or other cues rather than having to memorize or
read the presentation.
 Overcome Stage fear: Every person who has had to stand in front
of an audience and give a presentation has experienced some
degree of nervousness. When you realize that it is natural &
normal to feel a rush admire. Use some of your excess energy
before your presentation begins. Concentrate on what you are
going to say rather than on how you think the audience is going
to react your presentation.
 Use audience cues: The audience can provide with cues to
let you know how you are doing. Your task is to interpret
the cues and, if necessary, make adjustment in your
presentation. Most audience cues will be non verbal,
provided through audience reaction. Some positive cues to
watch: nodding in agreement, smiling, either in response
to humor or in encouragement, showing interest through
an intent facial expression & listening intently. These cues
tell you that the audience is with you, and you know that
your presentation is successful. The audience can also
provide you with negative cues, such as: looking at watch,
sleepy, restless, showing lack of interest through a
faraway facial expression, talking to other participant,
looking bored. When you notice these cues, you know that
you need to make some quick adjustments in your
presentation or you will loose you audience.
 Use Audiovisual Aids & Materials: Properly selected and
well prepared audiovisual aids & material will increase the
effectiveness of a presentation. If they are used correctly.
The speaker should be familiar with the operation of the
equipment to avoid mishaps.
 Respond to audience questions: The positive impression
made by a good presentation can be canceled by a poorly
handled Q & A session. There are two keys to responding
to audience question with confidence. Both require
advance preparation. The first key, is to know the subject
not just the content of presentation. The second key is to
spend time before presentation, trying to predict point
that may inspire question from the audience. By your
manner and tone, responding to questions in a friendly,
you encourage everyone to participate.
 Each presentation should be evaluated by the audience & by the
presenter. The feedback provides information from two different
perspectives, giving the presenter a more comprehensive
evaluation of his or her performance.
 Self evaluation: Self-evaluations, to be helpful, must be as
objective as possible. True it is often difficult and ego-
threatening to be objective about your own work. Self-evaluation
allows presenter to judge their own performance and to identify
specific areas and items that are effective, as well as those that
were not.
 Audience Evaluation: The checklist format should provide
feedback for the audience regarding the content of the
presentation, the audiovisual aids, the facilities, and the speaker.
 Combining the feedback received from the audience with the self
evaluation provides the presenter with information that identified
strong points to build on and areas that need to improvement.
 Listening: Listening is not synonymous with hearing.
Hearing is the act of perceiving sounds. When you listen,
however, your attach meaning to those sounds and
formulate an appropriate response to the message.
Listening, then, involves decoding the message so that its
content can be used. How well you listen is affected by
both internal and external factors.
 Internal Factors: Internal factors are conditions within you
that affect how well you listen. These factors include your
physical & emotional conditions, your beliefs, and attitude
towards the speaker & your expectations.
 External factors: Unfavorable conditions outside the
receiver, external factors, can also diminish listening,
effectiveness. These factors include uninteresting subjects,
poor presentation techniques & undesirable room
conditions.
 Preparing to Listen: In order to get the most out of
listening & thinking time, some preparation for listening is
needed. The preparation should include being mentally &
physically prepared to listen, previewing the topic, &
recognize the avoiding roadblocks to effective listening.
 Prepare mentally & physically: Effective listening requires a
great deal of physical energy. Getting too little rest and
skipping meals will decrease ability to concentrate.
Whether your listening activity take place in the classroom,
at a special presentation or on the job, success begins
with physical presentation.
 Preview technique: Most people find it easier to
understand & remember things that relate to something
they already know. For this reason, it is helpful to read
about a topic & become familiar with key concepts before
listening to a presentation.
 Improving Listening Techniques: Occasionally
You may have some special encouragement to
listen carefully. Techniques for improving your
listening include:
1.) Listening for key words and concepts
2.) Weighing important points & Supporting facts
3.) Taking selective notes
4.) Avoiding forming an opinion too quickly
5.) Increasing vocabulary
6.) Creating an environment for listening
7.) Maintaining eye contact
8.) Concentrating on what is being said
 Dictation can be communicated face-to-face to a secretary or to
a machine. Each method has its strength & weakness. You should
make the choice based on the method that best meets your
individual needs as the writer, as well as the needs of the
organization.
 Face to face dictation: Dictation given face to face to a secretary
offers several advantages over machine dictation. In general, it is
more personal approach to the dictation. Some advantages of
this method of dictation are:
 1.) The dictator and secretary develop a good working
relationship
 2.) The secretary can read back portions of the dictation
immediately for the dictator’s recall.
 3.) The dictation can make correction immediately
 4.) The secretary can question the dictator directly if clarification
is needed.
 Some drawbacks of the face to face dictation method should be noted:
 1.) A secretary is generally available for dictation only during normal
working hours.
 2.) Other people may not be able to read the dictated notes if
transcription is not completed.
 3.) Both the secretary and the dictator must need to present at the same
time and in the same place.
 These factors must be taken into consideration when making a decision
regarding the face to face method of dictation.
 Machine Dictation: As this modern era machine dictation is much
popular. Some Advantage are below:
 1.) Machine dictation is less expensive than face to face dictation
 2.) Machines are available 24 hours
 3.) Both dictator and transcriber can work at more than one location.
 4.) Transcriber & Dictator can work independently
 5.) Any trained person can transcribe from the medium.
 Consideration must also be given some of the
drawbacks of the machine dictation:
 1.) User resistance may be encountered
 2.) Machine can not supply missing words
 3.) Machine can not ask questions of the
dictator
 4.) Machine can not provide immediate
personalized feedback to the dictator.
 To providing the necessary background information, the writer needs to
use good dictation techniques. Some guidelines for dictation follow:
 1) Dictate clearly so the transcriber does not have to send back
incomplete or incorrect work.
 2) Dictate in a normal speaking tone . It is not necessary to change your
speaking voice.
 3) Keep the microphone two to three inches away from the mouth.
 4) Speak at a moderate speed, neither too fast nor too slow
 5) Group words naturally, just as you would if you were talking to
someone.
 6) Turn off the microphone if your dictation is interrupted.
 7) Turn off the microphone if you must pause in your dictation.
 8) Match the tone of the closing lines to that of the greeting.
 9) Dictate punctuation, paragraphing and spacing.
 10) Spell unusual names & Words.
 The dictator’s responsibility doesn’t end with the completion of
the dictation. Several post dictation activities help ensure that
the final product is an acceptable document. These post
dictation activities include proofreading, signing or initialing and
the evaluating the documents.
 Proofread: It is importance of proofread dictated material
carefully as it is to proof read any documents bearing the
author’s signature.
 Sign: When the author places his or her signature or initials on
documents, the another assumes full responsibility for the
accuracy, appearance, content and tone of the documents. If
document does not merit the signature, note the corrections and
return the document to typist for revision.
 Evaluate: several methods may be used to evaluate the dictation
techniques. The checklist allows to evaluate machine dictation in
terms of ability to give the operator clear instructions.
 The Most difficult kind of oral communication for most people is
a formal speech. Most of us feel uncomfortable speaking before
others and generally do a poor job of it. We can be improve our
speaking, we can do this by first learning good speaking
techniques, then we put these techniques into practice.
 Selection of Topic: First step in formal speech making is to
determine the topic of presentation. In some cases, it will be
assigned a topic, usually one within your area of specialization.
In fact, when you are asked to make a speech on a specified
topic, it is likely to be because of your knowledge of it. If you are
not assigned a topic, you must find one on your own. In your
search for a suitable topic, you will do well to be guided by three
basic factors. The first is your own background & knowledge.
The second is the interest of audience. The third is the occasion
of the speech. Your selection should be justified by all three
factors.
 Conduct research to get the information
needed. After you have determined what to
talk about, you should gather the information
that will form the basis of your speech.
Sometimes you will need to conduct primary
research in a library or in company files. With
some topics, you may need to consult
colleagues or people from other companies.
In short, you do whatever is necessary to get
the information what will form the basis of
your presentation.
 Organize the information: When you have all the
information you need, you are ready to begin
organizing your speech. You should follow the
time honored order of a speech; Introduction,
body and conclusion the same indirect order
used in some reports.
 Greetings: Although not really part of the speech,
the first words usually spoken is the greeting.
Your greeting, of course, should fit the audience.
Ladies & Gentlemen; is appropriate for a mixed
audience; Gentlemen fits an all-male audience;
my fellow Rotarians fits an audience of Rotary
club member.
 Gain Attention in the opening: The
introduction of speech has much the same
goal as the introduction of a written report: to
prepare the listener to receive the message.
But the introduction of a speech usually has
the additional requirement of arousing
interest. Unless you can arouse interest at the
beginning, your presentation likely to fail.
You, the speaker, must work to gain and hold
your audience interest.
 Opening Possibilities are many, but tie in with the
subject: The techniques of attracting interest are
limited only by the imagination. In some cases,
beginning with a human-interest story may be
successful, for story telling has strong appeal.
Humor is another possibility and probably the
most widely used technique. It should lead to, or
set up, the theme of the speech. In other words,
there should be a close tie in between the
opening interest-gaining remarks and the
subject of the speech.
 Organize most speeches by factors, as you would
a report: Organizing the body of your speech is
much like organizing the body of a report, you
take the whole and divide it into comparable
parts. Then you take these parts and divide them.
You continue to divide as far as it is practical to
do so. In speeches, however, you are more likely
to use factors as the basis of division than time,
place or quantity. The reason is that in most
speeches your presentation is likely to build
around issues and questions that are subtopic of
the subject. These issues and questions, of
course, are factors, even so, time, place and
quantity subdivisions are possibilities.
 Conclusion: Like most reports, the speech
usually ends with a conclusion. Here you
bring all that you have presented to a head.
You achieve the speeches goal. In doing this,
you should consider including these three
elements in your close: 1) A restatement of
your subject, 2) A summary of the key points
developed in the presentation, and 3) a
statement of the conclusion
 Determination of presentation Method: With your
speech organized, you are ready to begin preparation
for presenting it. At this time need to decide the
method of presentation whether to present it by
reading, by memorizing it or extemporaneously.
Extemporaneous presentation is by far the most
popular & effective method. Using this method, need
to thoroughly prepare the speech, as outlined above.
Then you prepare notes and present the speech from
them. Usually you rehearse, making sure that all parts
are clearly in mind but you make no attempt to
memorize. The extemporaneous method usually
sounds natural to the listener, even though it is
product of careful planning and practice.
 Memorized presentation is most difficult method,
at least for most of us. Probably few speakers
actually memorize an entire speech. Instead, the
memorize key parts and use not to help them
through the presentation. Such deliveries actually
are a cross between extemporaneous &
memorized presentation.
 Reading A third method of presentation is by
reading. Unfortunately, most of us do not aloud
well. We tend to read in a dull monotone,
producing a most uninteresting effect. You would
be wise not to attempt to read a speech until you
have become a proficient reader.
 A Preliminary step to good speech making is to analyze yourself
as a speaker. In oral presentations you, the speaker, are
essentially a part of the message. Your audience takes is not only
the words you communicate but what they see in you. Thus, you
should carefully evaluate your personal effect on the message
you present. You should do whatever you can to detect &
overcome shortcomings & to sharpen any strength. The following
review should help you pinpoint these problem areas & give you
some practical suggestions how to overcome them.
 Confidence: A primary characteristic of effective oral reporting is
confidence. This includes your confidence in yourself & your
audience’s confidence in you. Actually, the two are inter-alia, for
your confidence in yourself tends to produce an image that gives
you audience confidence in you. Your audience’s confidence
must be earned. Project the right image, and talk in a strong,
clear voice. If you want to communicate effectively, you should
analyze the audience you seek to reach.
 Sincerity: Your listeners will be quick to detect insincerity in you.
When they do, they are likely to give little weight to what you
say. On the other hand, sincerity is a valuable aid to conviction.
Especially if the audience has confidence in your ability. What
you can do to project an image of sincerity is clear.
 Thoroughness: Thoroughness in your presentation generally will
make your message better received than hurried coverage.
Thorough coverage gives the impression that you have taken
time, care and such an impression tends to make the message
believable.
 Friendliness: A speaker who projects an image of friendliness has
a significant advantage in communicating. People simply like
people who are friendly and sincere. It must be honest if it is to
be effective.
 There are others such as interest, enthusiasm, originality &
flexibility. Thorough self analysis and dedicated effort to
improve, you can enhance your speaking image.
 As your listeners hear your word, they are
looking at you. What they see is part of the
message & it can have a very real effect on the
success of your speech. What your audience sees,
of course, is you. Thus in your efforts, to improve
the effect of your oral presentations.
 The Communication Environment: Much of what
your audience sees is all the surrounds you as
you speak-everything that tends to add to a
general impression. This includes the physical
things- the stage, lighting, background.
Although not visual, a related influence here
would be outside noises. Your own experience as
a listener will tell you what, is important.
 Personal Appearance: Your personal appearance is part of
the message your audience receives. Of course, you must
accept your physical attributes but few of us need be at a
disadvantage with respect to appearance. You should
dress appropriately for the audience & the occasion. You
should be clean and well groomed. You should use facial
expression and bodily movements to your advantage.
 Posture: Posture/position is likely to be the most obvious
thing your audience sees in you. Even if listeners can’t be
close enough to detect facial expressions & eye
movements, they can see the general form the body takes.
You probably think no one need tell you what good
posture is. You know it when you see it. The trouble is that
you are unlikely to see it in yourself. One solution is to
have others tell you whether your posture needs
improvement. You should do all this naturally. The great
danger with posture is appearing artificial.
 Walking: The way you walk before your audience also
makes an impression of confidence. Hesitant,
awkward/clumsy steps give the opposite impression.
Walking about during the presentation can be good or
bad, depending on how you do it. Some speakers use
steps forward and to the side as form of bodily
gesture/sign, especially to emphasize points. Too much
walking is bad rather you should stop walking to
minimum, using it only when you are reasonably sure of
its effect.
 Facial Expressions: Probably the most apparent &
communicative bodily movement are facial expressions
that convey unintended meanings. A smile, grimace/make
a face or puzzled frown conveys a clear message. Without
the question, they are effective communication devices
and you should use them.
 Gestures: Gestures have vague meaning but they
do communicate. Like posture, gestures add to
the message you communicate. What they add,
however, is hard to say. They have no definite or
clear cut meaning.
 It should be clear that you can use bodily
movements to help your speaking. Which
movement you should use, it is hard to say. They
are related to personality, physical makeup and
the size & nature of the audience. A speaker
appearing before a formal group generally
should use relatively few bodily actions.
 One requirement of good speech making is to know
your audience. You should study your audience
before & during the presentation.
 Preliminary Analysis: In analyzing your audience
before the speech, you should search for any
audience characteristics that will affect your
presentation. For example, size of audience is likely
to influence how formal or informal you make your
speech. The audiences personal characteristics also
can affect how you make your speech. Such as age,
education, experience & knowledge of subject matter
can determine how you present your message. You
should adapt your speeches to your audience; and
knowing your audience is a first step in adaptation.
 Analysis during presentation: Your audience
analysis should continue as you make the
speech. Called feedback, this phase of audience
analysis gives you information about how your
listeners are receiving your words. With this
information, you can adjust your presentation to
improve the communication result. Your eyes &
ears will give feedback information. For example,
facial expressions will tell you how your listeners
are reacting to your message. From smiles, blank
stares and movements, you will get an indication
of whether they understand or agree with your
message. You can detect from their sounds (or
silence) whether they are listening.
 Good voice is an obvious requirement of good
speaking. Like bodily movements, the voice should
not hamper the listeners concentration on the
message. More specially, the voice should not detract
attention from the message. Voices that cause such
difficulties generally fall into four areas of fault.1)
Lack of pitch variation 2) Lack of variety in speaking
speed 3) Lack of emphasis by variation in volume and
4) Unpleasant voice quality.
 Lack of pitch (area of Play) variation: Speakers who
talk in monotones/control are unlikely to hold their
listeners interest for long. Most often the failure to
vary pitch is a matter of habit of voice patterns
developed over the years of talking without being
aware of effect.
 Lack of variation in speaking Speed: Determining how
fast to talk is a major problem. As a general rule, you
should present the easy parts of the message as a
fairly brisk rate & hard to understand info at a slow
pace. The reason for varying the speed of
presentation should be apparent. Easy info
presenting slowly is irritating; hard info presented
rapidly may be difficult to understand.
 Lack of vocal Emphasis: A secret of Good speaking is
to give words their due emphasis by varying the
manner of speaking. You must talk loudly enough for
all your audience to hear. Regardless of group size,
however, variety in force is good for interest and
emphasis. You can also show emphasis by going loud
to soft.
 Unpleasant Voice Quality: It is hard fact of
communication that some voice are more
pleasing than others. Fortunately, most voices
are reasonably pleasant. But some are rough,
narrowness or in some other way unpleasant.
Although therapy often can improve such voice.
 You can overcome most of the foregoing voice
problems through self analysis. With today’s
recording technology, it is easy to hear yourself
talk. Since you know good speaking when you
hear it, you should be able to improve your own
presentation.
 The prior review of business speaking is selective, for the
subject is broad. In fact, entire books are devoted to the
subject. But this review has covered the high points,
especially those that you can, easily transfer into practice.
The following list to what to do and not to do in speaking.
 1) Organize the speech so that it leads the listeners
though logically to the conclusion.
 2) Move surely and quickly to the conclusion. Don’t leave a
conclusion hanging, repeat unnecessarily or appear unable
to close.
 3) Use language specifically adapted to the audience.
 4) Speak about clearly, pleasantly and with proper
emphasis. Avoid hesitant and overuse of ah, er, uh and so
forth.
 5) Speak correctly, using accepted grammar and
pronunciation.
 6)Maintain an attitude of alertness, displaying
appropriate enthusiasm and confidence.
 7) Employ body language to best advantage. Use it to
emphasize points and assist in communicating
concepts and ideas.
 8) Avoid inflexible body actions.
 9) Look your listeners in the eye and talk directly to
them
 10) Avoid excessive movements, fidgeting and other
sign of nervousness.
 11) Punctuate the presentation with reference to
visual aids. Make them a part of the report story.
 12) Even when faced with unfair opposition, keep
your temper.
 A business oral report logically limits coverage to
accurate business information. By this definition,
an oral business report covers much of the
information exchanged in the daily conduct of
business. It varies widely in formality.
 Planning the oral report: As with written reports,
planning is logical first step in your work on oral
reports. For shot, informal report, of course,
planning may be minimal but for more formal
presentations, particularly those involving
audiences of more than one, proper planning is
likely to be as involved as that for a comparable
written report.
 Determination of Report Objective: In this step you should
state the report goal in clear, concise language just as you
would for a written report. Then you should clearly state
the factors involved in achieving this goal. This step will
guide you to the information you must gather and to the
frame work around which to build your presentation.
 Organization of Content: Your procedure for organizing
oral reports is similar to that for written reports. The same
information presented orally and in writing is not
necessarily presented in the same way. Time pressure,
may justify direct presentation for an oral report. A reader
in a hurry can always skip to the reports conclusion or
ending. The listener does not have this option. Al though
oral report may use either the direct or indirect order, the
indirect is by far the more widely used as well as the more
logical because your audience is unlikely to know the
problem well.
 You will need some introductory comments to
prepare them to receive the message. You may also
need introductory words to arouse interest, stimulate
curiosity or impress the audience with the subject
importance. The main goal of the introductory
remarks is to state the purpose, define unfamiliar
terms, explain limitation, describe scope, and
generally cover all the necessary introductory subject.
 Closing Summary: Oral report is likely to have a final
summary tacked on regardless of whether it has a
conclusion or recommendation. In a sense, this final
summary serves the purpose of an executive
summary by bringing together all the really important
information, analyses, conclusion& recommendations
in the report.
 In writing reports, you will frequently use information
from other sources. As this material is not your own,
you may need to acknowledge it. Whether & how you
should acknowledge such data is the subject of this
appendix.
 When to acknowledge? Your decision to acknowledge
or not, a source should be determined mainly on the
basis of giving credit where credit is due. If you are
quoting another’s words, you must give credit unless
the material covered is general knowledge.
 How to Acknowledge? Two methods are most
commonly used in business for acknowledging
sources: 1) Parenthetic author date reference within
the text and 2) footnote references.