CHAPTER 3B

PARTIAL FRACTION
PROPER AND IMPROPER FRACTION
• Algebraic fraction appears in form of
numerator
Algebraic fraction = denominator

where both numerator and denominator are polynomials.

Example:

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 7 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 𝑥
(i) 𝑥2 + 1
(ii) 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2
(iii) 𝑥4 + 1
 PROPER AND IMPROPER FRACTION
The degree of the numerator, n say is the highest power occuring in the numerator

The degree of the denominator, d say is the highest power occuring in the denominator.

If d > n the fraction is said to be proper (see Example (iii))

If d ≤ 𝑛 the fraction is said to be improper (see Example (i) and (ii))

Exercise:

Find each of the following fractions, state the degree of the numerator ( = n) and the
degree of the denominator ( = d). Hence classify the fractions as proper or improper

(i) 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5 (ii) 𝑥3 − 2 (iii) 5𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6

(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)2
PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION
There are 4 techniques of partial fraction decomposition regarding to the types of
the denominator for the proper fractions

However, for improper fractions, we need to do long division technique first in

order to express them in form of proper fraction. Hence, we can apply the 4
techniques as mentioned earlier

Partial Fraction Decomposition

Proper Improper

Nonrepeating Repeating
Linear Factors quadratic Long Division
factore
Repeating Nonrepeating
Linear Linear and New Proper Fraction Form
Factors Quadratic
Factors
NONREPEATING LINEAR FACTORS
𝑃(𝑥)
For any proper fraction, ∶
𝐷(𝑥)

If 𝐷(𝑥)has a nonrepeating linear factor of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, then the partial fraction
𝑃(𝑥)
decomposition of contains a term of the form
𝐷(𝑥)

𝐴
A is a constant
𝑎𝑥+𝑏

Example: 5𝑥 + 7
Decompose into partial fraction:
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
NONREPEATING LINEAR FACTORS

Solutions: 5𝑥 + 7
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
5𝑥 + 7
(i) First, try to factor the denominator, so we get (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)

5𝑥 + 7 𝐴 𝐵
(ii) Then we write (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) = (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 + 3)

(iii) Find constants A and B by combining the fractions on the right side of
equation to obtain
5𝑥 + 7 𝐴 𝑥 + 3 + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
=
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)

(iv) Thus, we get 5x + 7 = A(x + 3) + B(x – 1)

Continue…
NONREPEATING LINEAR FACTORS
(v) Let x = 1, so that the second term of the right side drops out and we can solve for A

5(1) + 7 = A(1 + 3) + B(1 – 1)

12 = 4A
A=3

Next, let x = -3, the first term drops out and we get

-8 = -4B
B=2

(vi) Hence, 5𝑥 + 7 3 2
= (𝑥 − 1)
+ (𝑥 − 3)
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)
REPEATING LINEAR FACTORS
𝑃(𝑥)
For any proper fraction, ∶
𝐷(𝑥)

If 𝐷(𝑥) has a k-repeating linear factor of the form (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)k, then the
𝑃(𝑥)
partial fraction decomposition of contains k terms of the form
𝐷(𝑥)

𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑘
+ +…+ A1, A2, … , Ak are constant
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑘

Example:
6𝑥 2 −14𝑥 −27
Decompose into partial fractions:
(𝑥+2)(𝑥 −3)2
REPEATING LINEAR FACTORS
Solution:
6𝑥 2 −14𝑥 −27 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑥+2)(𝑥 −3)2 𝑥+2 𝑥−3 (𝑥 −3)2

𝐴(𝑥 −3)2 +𝐵 𝑥+2 𝑥 −3 +𝐶(𝑥+2)

=
(𝑥+2)(𝑥 −3)2

6x2 – 14x – 27 = A(x-3)2 + B(x + 2)(x – 3) + C(x + 2)

If x = 3, then If x = -2, then Substitute A = 1 and C = -3

-15 = 5C 25 = 25A -27 = 9A – 6B + 2C

C = -3 A=1 -27 = 9 – 6B – 6

B=5

6𝑥 2 −14𝑥 −27 1 5 3
Hence, = + −
(𝑥+2)(𝑥 −3)2 𝑥+2 𝑥−3 (𝑥 −3)2
NONREPEATING LINEAR AND QUADRATIC
FACTORS
𝑃(𝑥)
For any proper fraction, ∶
𝐷(𝑥)

If 𝐷(𝑥) has a nonrepeating quadratic factor of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, which is prime

𝑃(𝑥)
relative to the real numbers, then the partial fraction decomposition of contains a
𝐷(𝑥)
term of the form
𝐴𝑥+𝐵
A, B constant
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐

Example:
5𝑥 2 −8𝑥 + 5
Decompose into partial fractions:
(𝑥−2)(𝑥 2 −𝑥+1)
NONREPEATING LINEAR AND QUADRATIC
FACTORS
Solution:

5𝑥 2 −8𝑥 + 5 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
= +
(𝑥−2)(𝑥 2 −𝑥+1) 𝑥 −2 𝑥 2 −𝑥+1

𝐴 𝑥 2 −𝑥+1 +(𝐵𝑥+𝐶)(𝑥 −2)

=
(𝑥 −2)(𝑥 2 −𝑥 + 1)

5x2 – 8x + 5 = A(x2 – x + 1) + (Bx +C)(x – 2)

If x = 2, then If x = 0, A = 3, then If x = 1, A = 3, C = -1, then

9 = 3A 5 = 3 – 2C 2 = 3 + (B – 1)(-1)
A=3 C = -1 B=2

5𝑥 2 −8𝑥 + 5 3 2𝑥 −1
Hence, = +
(𝑥−2)(𝑥 2 −𝑥+1) 𝑥 −2 𝑥 2 −𝑥+1
 REPEATING QUADRATIC FACTORS
𝑃(𝑥)
For any proper fraction, ∶
𝐷(𝑥)

If 𝐷(𝑥) has a k-repeating quadratic factor of the form (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 )k, where 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 +
𝑃(𝑥)
𝑐 is prime relative to the real numbers, then the partial fraction decomposition of
𝐷(𝑥)
contains k terms of the form

𝐴1 𝑥+ 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥+ 𝐵2 𝐴𝑘 𝑥+ 𝐵𝑘
+ 2 +…+ A1 , … , Ak , B 1 , … , B k
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)2 (𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)𝑘
are constants

Example:
𝑥 3 −4𝑥 2 +9𝑥 −5
Decompose into partial fractions:
(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3)2
REPEATING QUADRATIC FACTORS
Solution:

𝑥 3 −4𝑥 2 +9𝑥 −5 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷

= +
(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3)2 𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3 (𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3)2

𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3 +𝐶𝑥+𝐷

=
(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3)2

𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 +9𝑥 − 5 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)(𝑥 2 −2𝑥 + 3) + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷

𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 +9𝑥 − 5 = 𝐴𝑥 3 +(𝐵 − 2𝐴)𝑥 2 + 3𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶 𝑥 + (3𝐵 + 𝐷)

continue…
REPEATING QUADRATIC FACTORS
By equating the coefficient of terms of like degree, we have

A=1
B – 2A = -4
3A – 2B + C = 9
3B + D = -5

A = 1, B = -2, C = 2 and D = 1

Hence,
𝑥 3 −4𝑥+9𝑥 −5 𝑥−2 2𝑥+1
= +
(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3)2 𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3 (𝑥 2 −2𝑥+3)2
IMPROPER FRACTION
𝑥3− 2
Write the improper fraction into partial fraction
𝑥 −3 (𝑥+2)

Solution:
𝑥3− 2 𝑥3 − 2
=
𝑥 −3 (𝑥+2) 𝑥 2 −𝑥 −6

By long division,
𝑥+1
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 𝑥 3 +0𝑥 2 +0𝑥 − 2
3 2
( - ) 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 6𝑥
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 2
2
(-) 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 6
7𝑥 + 4
continue…
IMPROPER FRACTION
Rewrite the expression,

𝑥3− 2 7𝑥+4
=𝑥 +1+ Proper fraction
𝑥 −3 (𝑥+2) 𝑥 2 −𝑥 −6

.
.
.

Please continue with suitable partial fraction decomposition technique

Hint: Non repeating linear factor

Exercises:
7𝑥 + 10
1.
2𝑥 2 +5𝑥+3

9 − 4𝑥
2.
3𝑥 2 −𝑥−2

10𝑥 + 18
3.
4𝑥 2 +12𝑥 + 9

3𝑥 + 1
4.
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 − 1
Continue….
Exercises:
3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 +7𝑥 −2
5.
𝑥 2 −2𝑥+2 2

2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 −2
6.
𝑥+1
THE END