THEORIES

OF
LEARNING
Classical conditioning is a type of learning
that had a major influence on the
school of thought in psychology known
as behaviorism. Discovered by Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical
conditioning is a learning process that
occurs through associations between
an environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus.
Behaviorism is based on the assumption
that learning occurs through interactions
with the environment. Two other
assumptions of this theory are that the
environment shapes behavior and that
taking internal mental states such as
thoughts, feelings, and emotions into
consideration is useless in explaining
behavior
1. BehavioralLearning Theories or Associative
Learning Theories
• Prefer to concentrate on actual
behavior
• Conclusion based on observations of
external manifestations of learning
1.1 Classical Conditioning- Ivan Pavlov
 Classical means “ in the established
manner”
 (Stimulus substitution) is the method
of substituting another stimulus
for an original one to elicit a
response.
Principles of Classical Conditioning
1. Stimulus generalization – refers to the process by
which the conditioned response transfers to other
stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned
stimulus.
2. Generalization – appears to explain the transfer of
a response to a situation other than that in which
the original learning occurred. (reaction to the
same stimuli)
3. Discrimination – refers to the process by which we
learn not to respond to similar stimuli in an
identical manner.
4. Extinction – refers to the process by which
conditioned responses are lost. ( Repetition of CS
without reinforcement.)
1.2 Operant Conditioning –B.F. Skinner (
Reinforcement)
• Stresses the consequences of behavior in order to
learn.
• The learner must operate on or do something in the
environment in order to produce a result.
• Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in
shaping and controlling behavior in and out of the
classroom.
• Classifies Reinforcements into
 Verbal - praise, encouragement
 Physical – touches, pats and hugs
 Non- verbal - smiles, winks, warm looks
 Activity – being allowed to play games, listen to
music
 Token – points , chips and stars
 Consumables - cookies
Reinforcement – is the key element in Skinner’s S-R
theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthen the
desired response.
Positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added
to increase the response. Ex. Praises
Negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the
increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn
or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment in
fact it is a reward. Ex. Those who gets an average grade
of 1.5 for the two grading periods, will no longer take the
final examination.
Punishment is a consequence intended to reduced
responses. Ex. Student who always comes late is not
allowed to join a group work.
Skinner Partial Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed Interval schedules- the target response is reinforced after a
fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.(The
bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 10 mins. Regardless
of how many times it presses the bar)
Fixed ratio schedules – a fixed number of correct responses must
occur before reinforcement may recur.( everytime it presses the
bar 5 times)
Variable interval schedules- this is similar to fixed interval
schedules, but the amount of time that must pass between
reinforcement varies. ( The bird may receive food different
intervals, not every ten mins.)
Variable ratio schedules- the number of correct repetitions of the
correct response for reinforcement varies.( sales on commission
basis)
 Escape and Avoidance Learning
Are form of operant conditioning that uses negative
rather than positive types of reinforcement.
Escape Learning- is to get away from or to
eliminate an unpleasant situation.
Avoidance Learning - is learning to avoid or
prevent an unpleasant situation before its
occurrence.
Multiple response Learning
is the a sequences of acquiring of patterns
or responses in measuring a task.
1.3 Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism
1.3
• Edward Thorndike’s
Puts more emphasisConnectionism
on the response of the
• Puts more emphasis on the response of the organism not
organism not limiting himself to the association
limiting himself to the association between the stimulus and
between the stimulus and the response.
the response.
• • Three LawsofofLearning
Three Laws Learning
1. Law
1. Law ofofReadiness
Readiness - readiness is an important
- readiness is an important
condition ofoflearning.
condition A learner
learning. may be
A learner maysatisfied
be satisfied
or frustrated depending on his /her stage of
or frustrated depending on his /her stage of
readiness. The learner should be biologically
readiness.
prepared. The learner should be biologically
prepared.
 Law of Mind-set- reference to the mental set of the learner
 Law
Law ofof Apperception - pertain toto
Mind-set- reference thethe
recognitions
mental setof of the
relationships between what is presented and existing body
learner
 Law of Apperception - pertain to the recognitions of
relationships between what is presented and
existing body
 2. Law of Exercise – explains that any connection is
strengthened in proportion to the number of times it occurs
and in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the
connection. Practice alone is not enough for improvement.

 Law of Association
 Law of Use and Disuse
 Law of Frequency and Recency
 Law of Intensity
 Law of Forgetting
 3. Law of Effect – when an organism
response is accompanied or followed by
satisfactory state, the strength or the
connection is increased. If an annoying
state accompanies or follows the
response, the strength of the connection is
decreased.
 Law of Primacy
 Law of Belongingness
Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually
cats). He devised a classic experiment in
which he used a puzzle box to empirically
test the laws of learning.
• He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encourage to
escape to reach a scrap of fish placed outside. Thorndike
would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to
escape. The cats experimented with different ways to
escape the puzzle box and reach the fish.
• Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened
the cage. When it had escaped it was put in again, and once
more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive
trials the cats would learn that pressing the lever would
have favorable consequences and they would adopt this
behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.
• Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which
stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant
consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior
followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be
stopped.
Instrumental Conditioning
 COGNITIVE LEARNING
Learning which involves perception and
knowledge
Three Researchers: Cognitive Learning
Theory
1. David Ausubel- Meaningful Learning
Theory
2. Jerome Bruner- Cognitive Learning
Theory (Discovery
Learning)
3. Robert Gagne- Approaches to
Instruction
Meaningful Learning
- the acquisition of new meanings.

2 important ideas:
- Implies that the material to be learned is
potentially meaningful ( appropriate for the
student)
- the acquisition of new meaning refers to
the process by which students turn potentially
meaningful material into actual
meaningfulness.
( Meaningful learning occurs when the material occurs when the
material to be learned is related to what the students already
know.)
One of Ausubel’s most important
contributions to teachers is that of
Advance Organizer, which he describes
as a form of expository teaching, that is,
explaining what is to come.
An Advance Organizer is a frame used
by a learner in order to organize and
target new knowledge to be learned
prior to learning such information.
• An advance organizer is considered to be
effective for a kind of learning called Meaningful
Receptive Learning. The Meaningful Learning is
not rote learning where students memorize
meaningless matters automatically, but leaning
which treats matters familiar with students
(namely meaningful matters). At the same time,
the Learning is not Discovery Learning where
students explore and create a frame for
themselves with various examples given, but
Receptive Learning where they receive and
understand correct answers in an organized way.
Meaningful Receptive Learning was named by
Ausubel.
 Eric Erickson
Freud 8 Psycho-social
Jean Piaget
3 Components of Stages
4 Stages of Cognitive
Personality
Development
5 Psychosexual
Stages
Theories
Related to other
Learner’s
Development
Vygotsky
Brofenbrenner
Zone of Proximal Bio-Ecological System
Development
Kohlberg
Moral
Development