Mathematical Models of

Systems
Objective
• Use to design and analyze control systems. The
dynamic behavior is generally described by
ordinary differential equations.
Six Step Approach to Dynamic System
Problems
• Define the system and its components
• Formulate the mathematical model and list the
necessary assumptions
• Write the differential equations describing the
model
• Solve the equations for the desired output
variables
• Examine the solutions and the assumptions
• If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system
Summary of Governing Differential Equations for Ideal
Elements
RLC Circuit

• Alternatively, one may describe the electrical RLC

circuit of Figure 2.3 by utilizing Kirchhoff s current
law. Then we obtain the following integrodifferential
equation:
RLC Circuit

• RLC circuit when

the circuit is
subjected to a
constant current
r(t) = I. Then the
voltage is
Linear Approximation of a System
• systems ultimately become nonlinear as the
variables are increased without limit

• For a linear system, it is necessary that the

excitation x1(t) + x2(t) result in a response y1 (t)
+ y2(t). This is usually called the principle of
superposition.
Linear Approximation of a System
• F(x1 + x2) = F(x1) + F(x2)  Additivity

• F(ax) = aF(x)  Homogeneity

Linear Approximation of a System

• y = mx + b linear “if and only if satisfy the

homogeneity property

• When x = (x0 + ∆x) and y = (y0 + ∆ y), we have

(y0 + ∆y) = m(x0 + ∆x) + b
Laplace Transform
• Laplace transforms is a mathematical operation that is
used to “transform” a variable (such as x, or y, or z, or
t) to a parameter (s). Mathematically, it can be
expressed as:

• In a layman’s term, Laplace transform is used to

“transform” a variable in a function into a parameter
The Laplace Transform

Determine the Laplace transform for the functions

a) f1( t)  1 for t0


  s t
F1( s )   e dt 1  ( s t ) 1
 =  e
0 s s

 ( a t )
b) f2( t) e


  ( a t )  ( s t )
F2( s )  e e dt 1  [ ( s a)  t ] 1
 =  e F2( s )
0 s1 sa
The Laplace Transform
Evaluate the laplace transform of the derivative of a function



 d f ( t) 
L  d  ( s t )
 
f ( t)  e dt
 dt  
dt
0
 
by the use of  u dv = u v   v du
 
 ( s t )
where u e dv df ( t)

and, from which

 ( s t )
du s  e  dt
and v f ( t)
we obtain
 
 
f ( t)   s  e
 ( s t )  ( s t ) 


u dv = f ( t)  e 

 dt
0 0

  ( s t )
= -f(0+) + s f ( t)  e dt

0
L 
 d f ( t) 

 d t  = sF(s) - f(0+) note that the initial condition is included in the transformation
The Laplace Transform

Property Time Domain Frequency Domain

 ( s T )
e  F( s )
1. Time delay f ( t  T)  u ( t  T)

 F

1 s

a a
2. Time scaling f ( at)

d
3. Frequency differentiation t f ( t)  F( s )
ds

 ( a t )
4. Frequency shifting f ( t)  e F( s  a)


f ( t) 
5. Frequency Integration  F( s ) d s
t 
0

6. Initial-value Theorem Lim( f ( t) ) f ( 0) Lim( s  F( s ) )

t -> 0 s -> infinite

7. Final-value Theorem Lim( f ( t) ) Lim( s  F( s ) )

t -> infinite s -> 0

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF LINEAR
SYSTEMS
• The transfer function of a linear system is
defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform
of the output variable to the Laplace
transform of the input variable, with all initial
conditions assumed to be zero.
The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

 R  1   I( s )
V1( s )   Z1( s ) R
 Cs 
1
   I( s )
1 Z2( s )
V2( s )   Cs
 Cs 
1
V2( s ) Cs Z 2( s )
V1( s ) 1 Z1( s )  Z2( s )
R 
Cs
Transfer function of an op-amp circuit
Transfer function of an op-amp circuit
• The operating conditions for the ideal op-amp
are (1) i1 = 0 and i2 = 0, thus implying that the
input impedance is infinite, and (2) v2 — V1 = 0
(or V1 = V2).The input-output relationship for
an ideal op-amp is
Transfer function of an op-amp circuit
• Under ideal conditions, we have i1 = 0, so that
writing the node equation at v1 yields

(Since v 2 = V 1 = 0 (under ideal conditions) and

rearranging terms
The Transfer Function of Linear Systems
…