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EMERGENCY
BY :
Audrianto
Abdominal aortic
aneurysms
Characteristics Clinical features
• Permanent localised • A classical rupture
dilatation of an artery presents with the triad
affecting all layers of the
vessel wall of pain (often back
• Most commonly seen pain), a pulsatile mass
below the level of the and hypotension
renal arteries • Duration of symptoms is
• Ø of 3cm : abnormal often variable
• Most commonly
accepted aetiology is
• Most rupture into the
atherosclerosis. retroperitoneum
Abdominal aortic
aneurysms
• Abdominal X-ray (AXR):
Look for curvilinear ‘egg
shell’ type calcification
on the AXR, or evidence
of a paravertebral soft
tissue mass
• Ultrasound (US) can
accurately determine size
• CT is accurate in
assessing aneurysm
rupture as well as
visualising adjacent
structures.
Appendicitis
Characteristics Clinical features
• Common condition • Classically presents with a
seen in the 5–20 age history of central
abdominal pain that
group localises to the right iliac
• Aetiology remains fossa
unknown • Pyrexia, malaise, nausea
and anorexia are
• The inflammatory common complaints.
process will commonly • On examination most will
result in localised have localised
peritonitis tenderness on McBurney
spot
• Right lower abdominal
pain on palpation
(Rovsing Sign)
Appendicitis
• AXR: Look for a calcified appendicolith in the right
lower quadrant (RLQ)
• US: Suggestive features include an obstructing
appendicolith – a blind ending non-peristaltic, non-
compressible tubular structure
• CT: Sensitive and specific investigation. Luminal
distension with a thickened enhancing wall an
appendicolith.
• Contrast investigations: non-filling or localised
mucosal oedema within the caecal pole
Appendicitis
NORMAL APPENDIX
34-year-old healthy volunteer with a normal appendix. A and B, longitudinal (A) and
transverse (B) sonogram, showing the appendix (arrowheads) with a diameter less than
the 7 mm cut-off point, surrounded by normal noninflamed fat
NORMAL APPENDIX
A 19 year old woman with appendicitis. Longitudinal and transverse sonogram show
an enlarged appendix (arrows) surrounded by hyperechoic inflamed fat (arrowheads).
APPENDICITIS
Air is seen in the portal vein (*). Air seen within the bowel wall: a CT
feature of late ischaemia
Large bowel obstruction
Characteristics Clinical features
• << small bowel obstruction. • Crampy lower abdominal
• In western, the commonest pain insidiously +
cause : malignancy. constipation
• Other causes: diverticulitis • Abdominal distension
and inflammatory, ischaemic tends to be more marked,
or radiation induced colitis. vomiting is a late sign
Paralytic ileus and pseudo- • Localised pain, with signs
obstruction. of peritonism, is suggestive
• Commoner in the elderly. of ischaemia or
• If the ileocaecal valve is perforation. The caecum is
patent: a closed loop the most likely site to
obstruction vascular perforate
compromise and ischaemia.
Large bowel obstruction
Radiological features
• AXR: Plain abdominal films
are often diagnostic.The
large bowel is seen to be
dilated peripherally (‘picture
frame’ appearance)
• Distended small bowel loops
seen with an incompetent
ileocaecal valve.
• Caecal distension 8cm: >>
likelihood of caecal
perforation
• Erect chest radiograph
(CXR)/ lateral decubitus film:
if perforation is suspected.
• Contrast studies: delineate
the site of obstruction Large bowel obstruction. A transition
point is seen in the region of the sigmoid
colon.
Large bowel obstruction
The instant enema on the same patient Annular soft tissue mass obstructing
demonstrate the obstructing lesion the mid-descending colon.
Small bowel obstruction
Characteristics Clinical features
• Classified as dynamic • Crampy abdominal
or adynamic. pain, distension and
• Dynamic : the bowel vomiting are common
tries to overcome a • In general, the more
physical barrier. proximal the
Causes: intraluminal obstruction, the shorter
(foreign body); mural the presentation
(stricture) or extrinsic • Look for distension,
(neoplasm) scars and herniae
• Adynamic: the bowel • Marked tenderness
peristalsis is decreased suggests complicated
or absent. Typically obstruction and signs of
seen in response to bowel ischaemia
inflammation
Small bowel obstruction
Radiological features
• AXR: Look for dilated
loops of centrally located
bowel lying adjacent to
each other (step ladder
appearance) in distal
obstruction
• On the erect film multiple
(3) air–fluid levels are
suggestive
• Contrast studies: Small
bowel enema is more
sensitive than a follow
through.
• CT: assessing the level of
obstruction and presence
of extra-luminal
pathology
Classic small bowel obstruction: valvulae
conniventes clearly demonstrated
Perforation
Characteristics Clinical features
• Perforation of an air • Pain is generally common
containing hollow viscus • The site of pain can
(duodenum or sigmoid
colon diverticulum) indicate the viscus
free intraperitoneal air involved. Upper
• Other common sites for abdominal (stomach/
perforation: appendix in duodenum, whereas
acute appendicitis and lower abdominal (colon)
the colon secondary to • Tenderness and guarding
mechanical large bowel will follow a similar pattern
obstruction
• Bowel sounds are
• Small bowel perforation is reduced or absent
seen with trauma, foreign
body ingestion and with • Liver dullness will be
infiltrative disorders reduced
Renal/ureteric calculi
Characteristics Clinical features
• Commonest disorder of • Classically presents as
the urinary tract severe colicky loin to
groin pain
• Male predominance,
occurring commonly in • Often appear restless
and agitated with the
20–50-year olds pain
• There is a family • Nausea and vomiting
tendency towards are commonly
stone formation associated.
• The majority of stones • Commoner during the
are composed of night or early morning.
calcium oxalate • Urgency, frequency
and dysuria also
commonly occur.
Renal/ureteric calculi
Radiological features
• Kidney, ureter, bladder
(KUB): This will show 70%
of calculi; thus around
30% are not visible.
Phleboliths tend to be
spherical with a lucent
centre
• Intravenous pyelogram
(IVP)
Left renal tract obstruction secondary to a left
• CT: Sensitive and vesico-ureteric calculus (arrowhead)
specific test
Unenhanced renal tract CT. This demonstrates an obstructing calculus in
the upper third of the left ureter.
Sigmoid volvulus
Characteristics Clinical features
• Occurs when the • Crampy lower
sigmoid colon rotates abdominal pain with
causing a closed loop associated distension
obstruction
• Absolute constipation
• Predisposed in patients
with a redundant and tenesmus
sigmoid loop and a (secondary to rectal
narrow mesentery traction)
• Related to chronic • Beware signs of sepsis
severe constipation as these indicate likely
• Occurs in the elderly gangrene
and psychiatric or
neurological diseases
Sigmoid volvulus
Radiological features
• Plain abdominal films :
loop of large bowel
extending upwards
from the pelvis (coffee
bean appearance)
• Barium studies:
characteristically
tapers in the shape of a
bird’s beak
• CT scan: twisted
afferent and efferent
loops of bowel (whirl
pattern)
Classic sigmoid volvulus: Coffee bean’sign
Whirlpool sign
Toxic megacolon
(fulminant colitis)
Characteristics Clinical features
• Usually develops • Abdominal pain with
secondary to a distension which is
fulminant colitis progressive
• Usually occurs during • On examination the
the initial presentation abdomen is tender. Signs
of acute fulminant of sepsis including fever,
colitis rigors and tachycardia
• Can be precipitated are often present
by enema use, overuse • Approximately 25% of
of antidiarrhoeal patients with toxic
agents or by barium megacolon will develop
enema investigation a perforation.
Toxic megacolon
(fulminant colitis)
Radiological features Radiographic signs
Toxic megacolon: oedematous mucosal Air seen within the bowel wall: a CT
‘islands’ (arrowheads) in an inflamedTC. feature of late ischaemia.
Blunt abdominal trauma
Clinical features Radiological features
• The patient will often • Plain films: Rib, transverse
complain of pain that may process, vertebral body and
or may not be well pelvic fractures indicate
localised. potential injury to adjacent
structures
• Involuntary guarding
• US: A quick non-invasive
suggests peritoneal repeatable investigation
irritation. Rebound which is sensitive for free fluid
indicates established (100 ml) within the abdomen.
peritoneal irritation • Views include (1) the
• Look for characteristic hepatorenal recess (Morison
bruising that may suggest pouch), (2) the perisplenic
a visceral injury view, (3) the subxiphoid
pericardial window, and (4)
the suprapubic window
(Douglas pouch).
Radiological features
(cont’d)
• CT: Very useful in blunt
abdominal trauma.
Can define visceral
injury as well as free
haemorrhage. Can be
extended to examine
above and below the
diaphragm.
• Contrast studies: Useful
if there is suspected
oesophageal, gastric
or duodenal Closed blunt renal trauma. There is
perforation. asymmetry between the two renal
outlines.The left renal outline and
opacification of the left pelvicalyceal
system (PC) is distorted
BLUNT ABDOMINAL TRAUMA
MEKANISME CEDERA
Kompresi
Trauma
Trauma Tumpul
Deselerasi
Laserasi
Infark
Perdarahan Pseudoaneurisma
aktif Fistula
Arteriovenosa
Skala Tipe Deskripsi Cedera
III Hematoma Subkapsular, >50% area permukaan atau meluas; hematoma parenkim atau ruptur
subkapsular
Hematoma intraparenkim >5 cm atau meluas
Laserasi Kedalaman parenkim >3 cm atau mengenai pembuluh trabekular
IV Laserasi Laserasi yang mengenai pembuluh segmental atau hilar yang menyebabkan devaskularisasi
mayor (>25% lien)
Vaskular Cedera pembuluh darah di hilus yang mendevaskularisasi lien
(a) CT Scan enhanced contrast axial pada laki-laki usia 39 tahun dengan trauma hepar grade 4
& hematoma parankimal luas segmen 6 dan 7 hepar yang menunjukkan perdarahan aktif. (b)
Gambaran skematik sesuai dengan gambaran 21a.
• Disrupsi
parenkimal >
75 % lobus
hepar atau
melibatkan > 3
segmen
Couinaud
• Cedera
pembuluh
darah vena
juxtahepatica
• Avulsi hepar
(a) Trauma hepar grade 6 pada seorang laki-laki usia 36 tahun yang
terlibat KLL menunjukkan cedera keseluruhan hepar. Perdarahan dari
hepar dikontrol dengan Gelfoam. (b) Gambaran skematis yang sesuai
dengan gambar 23 (a)
Gambar Anatomi Ginjal
TRAUMA GINJAL
• Cedera ductus
biliaris/ampulla
• Disrupsi masif
dari kepala
pankreas Trauma pankreas grade V: fraktur pankreas dengan disrupsi pada ductus
pankreas pada seorang laki-laki usia 27 tahun setelah kecelakaan
kendaraan bermotor. Potongan axial contrast enhanced menunjukkan fraktur
pada leher pankreas (tanda panah) dengan kumpulan cairan multipel yang
meluas (tanda bintang).
Characteristics Clinical features
• Increasing in incidence. • Features relate to the type,
• Stab and gunshot wounds character and number of
account for the majority of penetrating injuries.
injuries. • Obtain a history from
• Liver, spleen, small and large witnesses, paramedics,
bowel, and stomach are patient, etc.
commonly involved. • Beware the patient with
• Mortality is related to lower chest, back and flank
degree of hypovolaemia injuries as a retroperitoneal
and the number of organs injury may not be apparent
injured
Radiological features
• Should only be performed if an
immediate laparotomy is not
indicated.
• Plain films: Can reveal free intra-
abdominal air or help to localise a
radioopaque foreign body.
• US: See blunt trauma. In penetrating
trauma US can be used to assess
the pericardial space for a
collection. Has also been used to
assess direction and depth of a
penetrating tract.
Large liver laceration
• CT: See blunt trauma.
PENETRATING ABDOMINAL TRAUMA