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PARTICLE PHYSICS
FIS 3114 – PHYSICS
(FOUNDATION IN SCIENCE)
Prepared by:
Noor Fadzliyana Mohd Fadil
• Quantum Physics
• Particle Physics
Planck’s Quantum Theory
Photon
Energy of e.m radiation depends on its Energy of e.m radiation does not depend
frequency or wavelength on its frequency or wavelength (depends
on Intensity)
E hf I A2
Eclassical k BT kB Boltzman' s constant
T temperature
Planck’s Quantum Theory
E hf c f
hc
E Planck’s quantum theory
Photon
• In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that light comes in bundle of energy (light
is transmitted as tiny particles), called photons.
c
E hf h
Photon
c
E hf h
1
3.00 10 ms
6.63 10 Js
8
34
9
450 10 m
4.42 1019 J
Example 2
(a) What is the energy of a photon of red light of
wavelength 650 nm ?
(b) What is the wavelength of a photon of energy 2.40 eV ?
Solution
a) c
E hf h
1
6.63 1034 Js
8
3.00 10 ms
650 109 m
3.06 1019 J
(b) Converting energy in eV to Joule (J)
c
E hf h
c
h
E
1
6.63 1034 Js
8
3.00 10 ms
2.40eV 1.60 1019 J
5.18 107 m 518nm
Photoelectric Effect
-Quantum And Particle Physics-
Photoelectric Effect
EM radiation - photoelectron
(light)
- - - - -- - - - - -
Metal surface
Free electrons
Photoelectric Effect
• The photoelectric effect can be measured using a device like
that pictured in figure below.
E.M. radiation (incoming light)
Cathode (emitter
or target metal) Anode(collector)
- -
-
glass
vacuum A
photoelectron
V
power supply
rheostat
I0
Voltage, V
Vs 0
B (After)A (Before reversing the
terminal)
Photoelectric Effect
• When the voltage is made negative by reversing the power supply
terminal as shown in figure below, the photoelectric current decreases since
most photoelectrons are repelled by the collector which is now negative
electric potential. E.M. radiation (incoming light)
Cathode (emitter
or target metal) Anode(collector)
- -
-
glass
vacuum A
photoelectron
Reversing power
V supply terminal
(to determine the
power supply stopping
B rheostat potential)
Photoelectric Effect
• If this reverse voltage is small enough, the fastest electrons will still reach the
collector and there will be the photoelectric current in the circuit.
• If the reverse voltage is increased, a point is reached where the photoelectric current
reaches zero – no photoelectrons have sufficient kinetic energy to reach the collector.
• This reverse voltage is called the stopping potential , Vs.
• If the frequency f of the incoming light is so low that is hf < Wo , then the
photon will not have enough energy to eject any electron at all.
• If hf > Wo , then electron will be ejected and energy will be conserved (the
excess energy appears as kinetic energy of the ejected electron).
• This is summed up by Einstein’s photoelectric equation ,
E Wo K .Emax
1 2 1 2
hf W0 mv max but eVs mv
2 2
hf W0 eVs
Einstein’s theory of Photoelectric Effect
E Wo K .Emax Einstein’s
1 photoelectric
hf W0 mvmax
2
equation
2
c
E hf h = photon energy
f = frequency of EM radiation /incoming light
1 2
K .Emax mvmax
2
vmax = maximum speed of the photoelectron
Einstein’s theory of Photoelectric Effect
1 hc
E Wo K .Emax hf W0 mvmax
2
Wo hf o
2 o
Wo = the work function of a metal.
= the minimum energy required (needed) to eject an
electron from the surface of target metal.
c fo = threshold frequency.
fo
o = minimum frequency of e.m. radiation required to
eject an electron from the surface of the metal.
λo = threshold wavelength.
= maximum wavelength of e.m. radiation required to
eject an electron from thesurface of the target metal.
Einstein’s theory of Photoelectric Effect
1
K max mvmax eVs hf hf 0
2
where;
hf
W0
hf < Wo Metal -
No electron is ejected.
Example 1
The work function for a silver surface is Wo = 4.74 eV. Calculate the
a) minimum frequency that light must have to eject electrons from
the surface.
b) maximum wavelength that light must have to eject electrons
from the surface.
a) Wo hf o b) o 263 nm
f o 1.14x10 15 Hz
Example 2
What is the maximum kinetic energy of electrons ejected from
calcium by 420 nm violet light, given the work function for calcium
metal is 2.71 eV?
(Given c = 3.00 x 108 m s-1, h = 6.63 x 10-34 J s
1 eV=1.60 x 10-19 J, me = 9.11 x 10-31 kg, e = 1.60 x 10-19 C)
KEmax E Wo
hc
2.71eV
6.63 1034 Js3.0 108 ms1
420 10 m 9
2.711.60 10 19
3.97 10 20 J 0.25eV
Example 3
Sodium has a work function of 2.30 eV. Calculate
a. its threshold frequency,
b. the maximum speed of the photoelectrons produced when the sodium
is illuminated by light of wavelength 500 nm,
c. the stopping potential with light of this wavelength.
(Given c = 3.00 x 108 m s-1, h = 6.63 x 10-34 J s
1 eV=1.60 x 10-19 J, me = 9.11 x 10-31 kg, e = 1.60 x 10-19 C)
Solution
a. W0 hf 0
W 2.30 1.60 1019
f0
h 6.63 1034 Js
5.55 1014 Hz
Solution
(Given c = 3.00 x 108 m s-1, h = 6.63 x 10-34 J s
1 eV=1.60 x 10-19 J, me = 9.11 x 10-31 kg, e = 1.60 x 10-19 C)
b. hc 1
W0 mv 2 c. 1 2
eVs mv
2 2
hc
2 W0 Vs
1 9.111031 2.56 105
2
v 2 1.6 1019
m
0.19V
2
34
6.63 10 Js 3.0 10 ms8 1
2.30 1.6 10 19
500nm
9.1110 31 kg
2.56 105 ms 1
Graph in Photoelectric Effect
Generally, Einstein’s photoelectric equation;
E Wo K .Emax
K .Emax E Wo
K.Emax K .Emax hf Wo
y mx c
f ↑ K.Emax ↑
0 f
fo
Wo
Graph in Photoelectric Effect
Stopping voltage ,Vs f ↑ Vs ↑
K .Emax hf Wo
eVs hf Wo
h Wo
Vs f
e e
0 frequency , f
y mx c fo
W0
e
Graph in Photoelectric Effect
Variation of photoelectric current I with voltage V for the radiation of
different intensities but its frequency and metal are fixed.
Photoelect ric current , I
Intensity 2x
Intensity 1x
Voltage , V
Vs 0
When intensity is increased the maximum current attained is
higher showing that more e- are emitted.
Vs remains the same shows that the Kmax of photoelectron independent
of intensity of light
Graph in Photoelectric Effect
Notes:
Classical physics
energy
Light intensity , I
time area
Quantum physics
number of photons
Light intensity , I
time area
Light intensity number of photons
Graph in Photoelectric Effect
Light intensity ↑ ,
number of photons ↑ ,
number of electrons ↑ ,
current ↑.
(If light intensity ↑, photoelectric current ↑).
Graph in Photoelectric Effect
Variation of photoelectric current I with voltage V for the radiation of
different frequencies but its intensity and metal are fixed.
Photoelect ric current , I
Im
Im
W01
W02
Voltage ,V
Vs 1 Vs 2 0
K .Emax hf Wo
W02 > W01
eVs hf Wo Wo , Vs
h Wo Vs1 > Vs2
Vs f
e e
Example 6
K.Emax (x 10-19 J)
y mx c
The higher the intensity, Very low intensity but Based on Einstein’s
the greater the energy high frequency photoelectric equation:
imparted to the metal radiation could emit K max hf W0
surface for emission of photoelectrons. The The maximum kinetic energy
photoelectrons. maximum kinetic of photoelectron depends
energy of only on the light frequency .
The higher the intensity photoelectrons is
of light the greater the independent of light The maximum kinetic energy
kinetic energy maximum of intensity. of photoelectrons DOES
photoelectrons. NOT depend on light
intensity.
DEPENDENCE OF AND ON THE TYPES OF METAL SURFACE
2. EMISSION OF PHOTOELECTRON (energy)
Experimental
Classical prediction Modern Theory
Result
Emission of Emission of When the light frequency is
photoelectrons occur photoelectrons occur greater than threshold
for all frequencies of only when frequency frequency, a higher rate of
light. Energy of light of the light exceeds photons striking the metal
is independent of the certain frequency surface results in a higher rate of
frequency. which value is photoelectrons emitted. If it is
characteristic of the less than threshold frequency no
material being photoelectrons are emitted.
illuminated. Hence the emission of
photoelectrons depend on the
light frequency.
3. EMISSION OF PHOTOELECTRON ( time )
Experimental
Classical prediction Modern Theory
Result
Light energy is spread over Photoelectrons are The transfer of photon’s
the wavefront, the amount of emitted from the energy to an electron is
energy incident on any one surface of the instantaneous as its
electron is small. An electron metal almost energy is absorbed in its
must gather sufficient energy instantaneously entirely, much like a
before emission, hence there after the surface is particle to particle
is time interval between illuminated, even collision. The emission
absorption of light energy at very low light of photoelectron is
and emission. Time interval intensities. immediate and no time
increases if the light intensity interval between
is low. absorption of light
energy and emission.
4. ENERGY OF LIGHT
Classical Experimental
Modern Theory
prediction Result
Energy of light Energy of light According to Planck’s quantum
depends only on depends on theory which is
amplitude frequency E=hf
( or intensity) and not Energy of light depends on its
on frequency. frequency.
Dependence of photoelectric current on intensity of incident light
• Experimental observations deviate from classical predictions
based on Maxwell’s E.M. theory. Hence the classical
physics cannot explain the phenomenon of photoelectric
effect.
• The modern theory based on Einstein’s photon theory of
light can explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
• It is because Einstein postulated that light is quantized and
light is emitted, transmitted and reabsorbed as photons.
SUMMARY : Comparison between classical physics
and quantum physics about photoelectric effect experiment
Feature Classical physics Quantum physics
E hf
c
Eh ….(1)
where h : Planck constant
c : speed of light in vacuum
The de Broglie Wavelength
• According to Einstein’s Theory of special relativity, the energy
equivalent E of a mass m is given by:
E mc 2
(2)
Equating (1) & (2):
hc
mc 2
h
mc
The de Broglie Wavelength
• So, the momentum p of a photon with wavelength λ is given by
h
p mc and
h
p mv for a particle
h
De Broglie wavelength
p
Property
of wave v ,
Property of
particle
The de Broglie Wavelength
Evidences to show duality of light
Light can behave as
PARTICLE WAVE
Photoelectric Effect Young’s Double Slit experiment
Compton effect Diffraction grating experiment
h
p p 1.33 1027 kg m s 1
Eh
c E 3.98 10 19 J
Example 2
An electron and a photon has the same wavelength of 0.25 nm.
Calculate the momentum and energy (in eV) of the electron
and the photon.
For an electron :
h 6.6x10 34 24 1
pe 2.64 x10 kg m s
0.25x10 9 24
pe 2 .64 x10 1
pe meve ve 31
2.90 x 10 6
m s
me 9. 11x10
hve (6.6x1034 )( 2.90x106 )
E hf
0.25x109
7.65x1018
19
47.8 eV
1.6x10
Solution
For a photon :
h
p photon 2.64 x 10 24 kg m s 1
hc (6.6 3 x 10 34 )(3 x 108 )
E
0.25 x 10 9
7.96 x 10 16
19
4972.5 eV
1.6 x 10
Electron Diffraction
diffraction
graphite film screen pattern
anode
+4000 V
cathode
electron
diffraction
Electron diffraction tube
Electron Diffraction
Electron Diffraction
• In 1927 , two physicists C.J Davission and L. H Germer carried out electron
diffraction experiment to prove the de Broglie relationship.
• A graphite film is used as a target.
• A beam of electrons in a cathode-ray tube is accelerated by the applied
voltage towards a graphite film.
• The beam of electrons is diffracted after passing through the graphite film.
• A diffraction pattern is observed on the fluorescence screen.
• This shows that a beam of fast moving particles (electrons) behaves as a
wave, exhibiting diffraction – a wave property.
Electron Diffraction
h
….(1)
mv
v ,
Electron Diffraction
• The velocity of electrons can be determined from the accelerating
voltage (voltage between anode and cathode) i.e :
U K
1 2
eV mv
2
2eV ….(2)
v
m
(2) into (1) ,
h
2 meV
V = accelerating voltage
Example 3
An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference
of 1200 V. Calculate its de Broglie wavelength.
(me= 9.11 x 10-31 kg)
(Potential Energy Kinetic Energy)
h
eV 12 mev 2
2meV
2eV
v
me
or
v 2.05x107 m s 1
h h 6.6x1034
p
me v (9.11x1031 )(2.05x107 )
3.53x10 -11 m
Example 4
An electron and a proton have the same kinetic energy. Determine the
ratio of the de Broglie wavelength of the electron to that of the proton.
(me= 9.11 x 10-31 kg, mp = 1.67 x 10-27 kg)
h
e 2me K e 2m p
42.8
p h 2me
2m p K p
Electron Microscope
• A practical device that relies on the wave properties of electrons is
electron microscope.
• It is similar to optical compound microscope in many aspects.
13.6
En 2
eV
n
where n 1, 2, 3, ...
• The minus sign tells us that much energy is needed to raise the electron to the
zero level.
• When n = ∞, the energy is zero and the electron is completely removed from
the atom.
Energy Level Diagram
• The excitation energy is the
energy that must be supplied to
the atom to raise the electron
from the ground state to an
excited state.
• The ionisation energy is the
energy that must be supplied to
liberate the electron from the
atom when the electron is in the
ground state.
Example 5
Solution:
hc
E
6.63 10 34 Js 3.0 108 ms 1
1
9 19
467.8 10 m 1.60 10 C
2.66eV
Example 6
• The diagram below shows some of the energy levels for a hydrogen atom.
a) the energy required for the transition of hydrogen from the ground state to
the first excited state is 10.2 eV. Determine the value of the energy level E2.
b) Calculate the wavelength of the lowest-energy photon that could excite a
hydrogen atom in the ground state to the n = 4 level.
• Solution:
a) E2 13.6eV 10.2eV
3.40eV
b) hc
E
6.63 10 34
Js 3.0 108 ms 1 1
0.85eV 13.6eV 19
1.60 10 C
9.75 10 8 m
Example 7
10.2eV
10.2 1.6 1019 hc
1.63 10 18 J E
6.63 10 34
Js 3.0 108 ms1
1.63 1018 J
1.22 107 m
122nm
Line Spectrum
• The line spectrum of an element results from the emission of photons with
specific energies from the atom.
• When a photon is emitted, the internal energy of the atom changes by an
amount equal to the energy of the photon.
• According to Bohr, each atom can exist only with certain specific values of
internal energy.
• The electron in an atom can make a transition from one energy level to a
lower level by emitting a photon with energy equal to the energy difference
between the initial and final levels.
Line Spectrum
1 1 1
R 2 2
n n
f i
1 1 1
Balmer series R 2 2 n = 3, 4, 5, …….
2 n
1 1 1
Paschen series R 2 2 n = 4, 5, 6, …….
3 n
1 1 1
Brackett series R 2 2 n = 5, 6, 7, …….
4 n
1 1 1
Pfund series R 2 2 n = 6, 7, 8, …….
5 n
Example 8
• Find a wavelength for a line spectrum in Lyman series when the electron
makes a transition from the n = 4 level.
• Solution:
1 1 1
R 2 2 for Lyman series, n1 = 1
n n
f i
1
7 1
1.094 10 2 2
1
1 4
0.972 10 7 m
9.72 10 8 m
Example 9
n =2
n =1
X-ray
Can be diffracted by
Invisible for eye but crystal lattice where the
darkened a size of its atom ≈
photographic film wavelength of x-ray
Penetrating through
numerous materials
impermeable for light
X-ray tube
Production of X-rays
• Some high energy electron penetrate deep into the atoms of the
target. They knock out an electron from an inner orbit of lower energy
level (K shell).
• An electron in one of the outer shells of higher energy levels (L or M
shells) can then fall into to fill the vacancy.
• An x-ray photon is emitted in this process.
hc
E hf
Characteristic X-rays
• The K-series of the X-ray lines are due to movement of electrons of the
target atom from the L (Kα line) or M (Kβ line) shells to the K shell.
The X-ray spectrum that is transmitted from the anode of X-ray tube.