Quantum Mechanics:

Nature of Matter

Ref. Book: Physics, Volume 2 by D. Halliday, R. Resnick

and K.S. Krane, 5th Edition,

Chapter 46
 Velocity of de-Broglie waves
According to de-Broglie, a wave of wavelength 𝛌 is
associated with moving material particle. The wavelength is
ℎ
given by 𝛌 =
𝑚v
where m and v are the mass and velocity of the particle
respectively. The energy E of the particle is given as:
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣
𝐸
or 𝑣=
ℎ
According to Einstein’s mass-energy relationship
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑚𝑐 2
∴𝑣= and we know that c = 𝑣𝛌
ℎ
𝑚𝑐 2 ℎ
The de-Broglie wave velocity v𝑝 = 𝑣𝛌 or v𝑝 =
ℎ 𝑚v
𝑐2
or v𝑝 = … . . (9)
v
 Waves and Particle (description of matter?)
Our traditional understanding of a particle…

“Localized” - definite position, momentum, confined in space

Our understanding of a wave….

λ0

“de-localized” – spread out in space and time

 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

It is impossible to determine the exact position and momentum

of a particle simultaneously.

We know that λ=h/p and k = 2π/λ

⇒ k = (2πp)/h, p = momentum of the associated particle
Consider a wave packet of matter waves of width Δx, spread in
wave number would be Δk ⇒ Δk = (2π/h) Δp

Δx .Δk ≅ 1 Δx.Δp ≅ h/2π

As momentum is a vector, we have then Δx.Δpx ≥ h/2π

Δx.Δpy ≥ h/2π
Δx.Δpz ≥ h/2π
These are Heisenberg's Uncertainty relationships
 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

Uncertainty in Position : Δx

Uncertainty in Momentum: Δpx

Δx Δpx ≥ h/2π
 The Uncertainty Principle is an important consequence of
the wave-particle duality of matter and radiation and is
inherent to the quantum description of nature
 Simply stated, it is impossible to know both the exact
position and the exact momentum of an object
simultaneously
A fact of Nature!
 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle
- applies to all “conjugate variables”
Position & momentum: Δx . Δpx ≥ h/2π
Einstein’s photo equation: E = hf; the uncertainty in the
frequency of the matter wave is related to the uncertainty
in the energy E of the corresponding particle by
Δf = ΔE /h
Δ ω=2 π Δ f = 2 π ΔE/h;
Δ ω. Δ t ≅ 1

Energy & time: ΔE . Δt ≥ h/2π

It is not possible to determine both the energy and the time

coordinate of a particle with unlimited precision
 Some consequences of the Uncertainty Principle

 The path of a particle (trajectory) is not well-defined in

quantum mechanics

 Electrons cannot exist inside a nucleus

 Atomic oscillators possess a certain amount of energy known

as the zero-point energy, even at absolute zero.
The non-existence of free electron in the nucleus.
The diameter of nucleus of any atom is of the order of 10-14m. If any electron is
confined within the nucleus then the uncertainty in its position (Δx) must not be
greater than 10-14m.

According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, equation

Δx Δp > h / 2π
The uncertainty in momentum is
Δp > h / 2πΔx , where Δx = 10-14m
Δp > (6.63X10-34) / (2X3.14X10-14)

i.e. Δp > 1.055X10-20 kg.m /s

This is the uncertainty in the momentum of electron and then the momentum of the
electron must be in the same order of magnitude. The energy of the electron can be
found in two ways one is by non relativistic method and the other is by relativistic
method.
Non-Relativistic method:

The kinetic energy of the electron is given by,

E = p2/ 2m

p is the momentum of the electron = 1.055X10-20 kg.m /s

m is the mass of the electron = 9.11X10-31kg
∴ E = (1.055X10-20)2/ (2X9.11X10-31) J
= 0.0610X10-9J
= 3.8X108eV

The above value for the kinetic energy indicates that an electron with a
momentum of 1.055X10-20 kg.m /s and mass of 9.11X10-31 kg to exist with in
the nucleus, it must have energy equal to or greater than this value. But the
experimental results on β decay show that the maximum kinetic an electron
can have when it is confined with in the nucleus is of the order of 3 – 4 Mev.
Therefore the free electrons cannot exist within the nucleus
 Why isn’t the uncertainty principle apparent to us in our
ordinary experience…?
Planck’s constant, again!!

Δx . Δpx ≥ h/2π h = 6.63x10-34 [J.s]

Planck’s constant is so small that the uncertainties implied by

the principle are also too small to be observed. They are only
significant in the domain of microscopic systems.
Q.21- A nucleus in an excited state will return to its ground state,
emitting a gamma ray in the process. If its mean lifetime is 8.7
ps in a particular excited state of energy 1.32 MeV, find the
uncertainty in the energy of the corresponding emitted gamma-
ray photon.

Q.22- An atom in an excited state has a life time of 12 ns: in a

second excited state the lifetime is 23 ns. What is the uncertainty
in the energy for a photon emitted when an electron makes a
transition between these two states?

Q.23 A microscope using photons is employed to locate an

electron in an atom to within a distance of 12 pm. What is the
minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the electron located
in this way?
Q.24- Imagine playing baseball in a universe where Planck’s
constant was 0.60 J.s. What would be the uncertainty in the
position of a 0.50 kg baseball moving at 20 m/s with an
uncertainty in velocity of 1.2 m/s? Why would it be hard to catch
such a ball?

Q.25- Find the uncertainty in the location of a particle, in terms

of its de Broglie wavelength, so that the uncertainty in it velocity
is equal to its velocity.

Q.26- an electron is confined to a box the size of an atom so that

one side of the box has length d=0.1nm. (a)calculate the
uncertainty in the momentum ∆𝑝 of the electron. (b) Assuming
that the elctron is “bouncing” around inside the box with
momentum p ≈ ∆𝑝, calculate the kinetic energy of the electron.
 Are matter waves for real?!
__________________________________
Double –slit experiment with electrons (1989)
(www.hqrd.hitachi.co.jp/em/doubleslit.cfm)
 Today, advances in technology have led to matter wave
interference experiments being demonstrated successfully not
only with electrons but neutrons, atoms, and big and small
molecules!
 In fact, the largest molecule showing interference has almost a
100 atoms!
 C60 molecules (Fullerenes or Bucky Balls)
have a wave nature! (A. Zeilinger et al,
Vienna, 1999)

 Biomolecules have it too!

 Porphyrin (2003)