15 - DTA Guidelines For Repairs and Altertaions

Aeronautics & Astronautics
A Community of Innovators
Draft Guidance for Developing

Damage Tolerance
Based Inspection Program
for Repairs and Alterations
By Patrick Safarian
Seattle Aircraft Certification Office
1
Damage Tolerance Based
Inspection
 Required Elements for Damage Tolerance
Analysis (DTA)
 DTA Tools
 Comparison of Tools
 DTA for Repairs
 DTA for Alterations
 Appendix: Requirements for DER per Order
8110.37D
 SACO Standardization
2
Required Tool for Damage
Tolerance Analysis
 Are computer tools the answer to all DTA?
 NO!
 Every aspect of the analysis should be verified
 Assumptions
 Crack initiation and failure scenarios
 Algorithms
 Residual strength and crack growth equations
 Crack propagation between phases of growth
 Data reduction
 Stress intensity factors

 Material properties
 Inspection criterion
 Verify simple problems using hand analysis
3
Comparison of Damage Tolerance
Analysis Tools
 Using few software to compare the results is helpful,
but the answers might be surprising!
 DTA for antenna installation using 3 different tools:
(Source: Cassie Fohn, DT Analyst)
Parameter RAPID Broek AFGRO

KA 158 100 58
Crit. Crk Length 16 10 0.24
Equation Walker Walker NASGRO
Init. Crk Length 0.10 0.10 0.10
Ndetectable 4,134 3,352 7,877
Ncritical 43,905 4,118 25,327
Nthreshold 4,134 3,352 7,877
Nrepeat 19,885 1,961 10,247
 Engineering is “thinking” and all answers should be justified!
4
Guidance for Developing
Damage Tolerance
for Repairs
5
Tale of an airplane
 Boeing 737- 57,804 Cycles, 44,344 Hrs (4/7/89)
Sanded &
grounded
MCD to
remove
paint &
corrosion 10 repairs around the fwd
galley door, 3 overlapping
6
Tale of an airplane (cont.)
 Repair around EE bay, STR 20- Skin and Frame Damage
Skin
Buckled
&
cracked!
Frame
crack
remains!
UP
FWD
Damage is not completely removed from the skin; the frame remains damaged!
7
 STA 900 STR 22R- Skin Gouge Repair…almost!
Partially
repaired Gouge!
Outside View Inside View

Repair does not pick up the stringer fasteners,
uses 1/8” dia fasteners (not per approved data)
8
 STA 767 STR 24L- Skin Dents Repair…almost!
Un-repaired dent aspect ratio:

1.5/0.18=8.33<30
(SRM acceptable limit exceeded)
Outside
View
Inside
View
Dent stop drilled 2 Row of 1/8 “ dia fasteners
now corroded (Not per approved data)
9
 STA 940 STR 22R- Skin Gouge Repair…NO!
Outside Inside
View View
Partially Repaired Gouge Single Row of 1/8 “ dia fasteners

(Notice the skin wrinkle) (Not per approved data)
10
 STA 400 STR 20R- Unauthorized removal of stringer
flange in the repair area!
What do you do when your bucking bar does not fit under the stringer?!
Stringer may not be adequate for limit load due to stability.
11
 STA 847 LBL 20- Frame Inner Chord Stop Drill
3 Un-repaired stop-drilled holes in the frame inner chord
12
 STA 380 STR 24L- Improper Frame Repair
Original frame repaired with an angle with 2 fastener

rows with poor edge margin. Repair is cracked !
Airplane life=57,804 cycles
13
Repair Categorization
 Focus on typical fuselage skin
 Internal or external
 Watch for countersink fasteners on thin gauge skins for
internal repairs
 Applicable to pre and post amendment 25-45 airplane models
 Related AC guidance:
 AC 25.571-1C
 AC 25.1529-1
 AC 120-93
 Damage Tolerance Inspections For Repairs And Alterations
 Repairs are categorized as:
 Permanent repairs (a.k.a. Category A)
 Interim repair (a.k.a. Category B)
 Time-limited repairs (a.k.a. Category C)
14
 Time-limited repair: a repair that has adequate
structural strength but does not have
sufficient durability. This repair must be
replaced after a specific time (cycles, hours or
time),
 Deviation from good general standard practices, blind
rivets, wrong fasteners, short edge margins, fastener pitch
distances, suitable gauges or material, proximity to another
repair, un-inspected underlying structure, un-removed
corrosion, etc.
 Replaced or rework ASAP
 Meanwhile supplemental inspection may be necessary
 This repair is categorized as category C repair.
15
Fuselage Skin Repairs
 Here is a picture of a repair: not recommended

 Crack was detected, but the new repair will be more
extensive
Crack tips
skin doubler
A filler
stringer
Crack at
rivet row
A
A-A
16
 Here is a picture of another repair: not
recommended
Repair end on the

critical fastener
row of the skin
lap splice
17
 Here is a picture of a bad repair- damage is not
removed!
Notice the crack!
18
 Here is a pictures of a bad repair, real bad!
One row blind

fasteners!
Is this statically
adequate?
19
 Permanent and Interim repairs
 Perform a DTA to establish maintenance program
 If existing inspections (BZI or MPD) are inadequate,
determine supplemental maintenance program- Interim
 If no supplemental maintenance program is necessary
the repair is categorized as permanent (category A)
repair, otherwise it is an interim (category B) repair
 For category B repairs, as minimum, the following
should be established using DTA:
 Inspection threshold
 Inspection technique
 Inspection interval
 In rare cases replacement time should also be specified
 e.g. certain skin lap joints
20
Damage Tolerance Assessment of
Repair- Inspection Threshold
 Threshold for category B repairs should be the
lesser of:
 From the SACO Damage Tolerance Guidelines
 ¼ of the unfactored fatigue life of the repaired details
 ½ the life of initial flaw size to critical length
 Threshold of the SSID or ALI
 ¾ the design service goal (DSG) of the airplane
 The threshold is calculated as the airplane
total cycles unless
 The repair picks up new holes, or
 Uses existing holes that are zero-timed
21
Repair- Inspection Technique
 Most common inspection techniques are:
 General Visual (Surveillance)
 Detail Inspection
 Special Inspection
 High frequency eddy current (HFEC)
 Low frequency eddy current (LFEC)
 Medium frequency eddy current (MFEC)
 Ultrasound (UT)
 In Table 1 of SACO Damage Tolerance Guidelines
guidance for detectable crack size for most of
these techniques are provided
 Use OEM NDI procedure manual to specify the technique
procedure
22
Repair- Inspection Technique (cont.)
 Examples from Boeing NDI procedure manual to
specify the technique (use any approved spec’s):
 727 NDT manual Part 6
 LFEC: 53-30-00 Figure 5
 HFEC: Surface and around fastener 51-00-00 Fig 4 or Fig 23
 HFEC: Open Hole 51-00-00 Fig 16 or Fig 11 (only for t>0.062”,
needs less space than fig 16)
 Recommended Minimum detectable crack lengths:
 HFEC: 0.20” Gen Area, 0.10” + fastener head diameter
 MFEC: 0.50” Gen Area, 0.25” @ fastener shank
 0.15” @ fastener (727 NDT Part 6 53-30-27 Fig 17)
 LFEC: 0.20” C’snk & 0.25” Button-head (0.04<t<0.089)
 (727 NDT Part 6 53-30-27 Fig 13 refers to 53-30-00 Fig9)
23
Repair- Inspection Intervals
1. Determine the detectable crack size based on
the inspection technique
 An acceptable way to model MSD would be to assume
detectable cracks exist at every equally critical
detail; e.g. both sides of each hole in a row of equally
critical holes
Detectable crack at every equally critical hole (Total of 10 in this schematic)
2. Determine the fatigue loads and develop

spectrum
 In absence of OEM data use conservative approach
24
Repair- Inspection Intervals (cont.)
3. Using residual strength analysis determine
the critical crack length
 Choose the shorter length of the net section yield
and LEFM results
 For MSD situations most often the critical crack
length is based on net section yield
If Dp=8.9 psi, R=128”, pitch=1.2, dia=0.188”, t=0.062”, KA= 130
Ksi*in**0.5, FTU=62 Ksi and FTY=42 Ksi show that the critical
crack length is 0.242”?
Fastener Pitch
aCritical
(Typical 10 locations)
25
3. Use the following residual stress levels to determine
the critical crack length (acritical)
 Longitudinal cracks,
sHoop, Res = (1.1 Dp + 0.5)R/t (Pre-amendment 25-45)
 Circumfrential cracks
sLong, Res = DPR/2t + Nz s1g,MAX (aft of front spar)
sLong, Res = DPR/2t + Nz(L/S)s1g,MAX (fwd of front spar)
Dp = normal operating pressure at maximum design altitude
DP = normal operating pressure at maximum design altitude
plus 0.5 psi for aerosuction
Nz = maximum design limit load factor (at least 2.5 but not
greater that 3.8)
26
4. Using LEFM principals grow the cracks from
detectable length to the critical length
 Cycle by cycle crack growth or simplified equivalent
stress crack growth methods can be employed
 Programs available include NASGRO, AFGROW,
FractureResearch, CRACKS9x, user developed programs or
combinations of features from the listed programs.
 Find the most critical cracking scenario(s) using S-N
curves & analyze different crack sequence scenarios
 The most critical inspection program should be
applied to ALL fatigue critical details,
 e.g. inspect the most critical (outer) row in longitudinal
and circumfrential directions of a rectangular repair
27
Damage Tolerance Assessment of Repair-
Inspection Intervals (cont.)
 Vertical fuselage inertia bending adds to longitudinal
skin stress is assumed to vary as shown:
Lift
ANTENNA LOCATION
Front
Spar nzW
L
sL = DpR/2t + nzs1G,max
S
sL = DpR/2t + nz (L/S) s1G,max

FUSELAGE
LOCATION
28
Damage Tolerance Assessment of Repair-
Inspection Intervals (cont.)
 Longitudinal cracks,
sHoop,min = 0
sHoop,max = DPR/t Use 1.5 for large transports, e.g.
 Circumferential cracks, Boeing, and 1.3 for small transports,
e.g. Gulfsteam, airplane models
sLong,min = 0
sLong,max = s1.5 g,max = 1.5 s1.0g,max + DPR/2t
sLong,max = 0.4 (FTU, B + DPR/2t) (aft of front spar)
sLong,max = 0.4 ((L/S)FTU, B + DPR/2t) (fwd of front spar)
DP = normal operating pressure at max design altitude + 0.5psi (aerosuction)
 Use the bending stresses provided in the next few
slides to adjust for the joint eccentricity created due
to installation of the repair doubler For Dp=8.9 psi, R=128”, t=0.062”,
and FTU=62 Ksi what are the hoop
and longitudinal stresses?
29
Joints with eccentricities
 Secondary bending
 Caused by step in neutral line
 Bending moment depends on
 Step size (eccentricity)
 Thickness
 Load transfer
 Overlap length (row distance)
 Loads on Joint
 Tensile stresses
 Secondary bending
 Contact surface: Tensile stress
+ bending stress
 Outer surface: Tensile stress -
bending stress
30
Longitudinal tension and bending stress magnitudes in skin at the
doubler edge for various thicknesses in a 74” radius fuselage
(Dp=8.6 psi for all, except for 0.036” skin Dp=8.0 psi)
Dblr
R (in.) Skin 0.040 0.050 0.056 0.063 0.071 0.080 0.090 0.100 0.125
0.036 tensile 17,534 17,706 17,824 17,951 18,084
0.036 bending 24,844 25,486 25,730 25,913 26,015
0.040 tensile 16,909 17,070 17,180 17,302 17,430 17,560 17,692 17,811 18,063
0.040 bending 24,064 24,764 25,046 25,272 25,420 25,473 25,422 25,379 25,504
74
0.050 tensile 13,359 13,645 13,739 13,839 13,944 14,051 14,149
0.050 bending 19,877 20,162 20,406 20,586 20,685 20,688 20,602
0.063 tensile 10,832 10,912 10,996
0.063 bending 16,102 16,283 16,398
0.063 tensile 14,691 14,806 14,927 15,053
0.063 bending 21,434 21,750 22,006 22,191
100
0.071 tensile 12,976 13,075 13,181 13,291 13,396 13,629
0.071 bending 18,696 19,275 19,532 19,724 19,835 19,836
31
 Plot of tension and bending stresses in the skin at the doubler
edge for various thicknesses in a 74” radius fuselage (Dp=8.6 psi
for all, except for 0.036”t Dp=8.0 psi)
74" Radius
28,000
25,000
0.036 tensile
22,000
0.036 bending
s 19,000 0.040 tensile
16,000 0.040 bending
0.050 tensile
13,000
0.050 bending
10,000
0.063 tensile
0
0
0.063 bending
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Doubler Thickness
32
 Plot of tension and bending stresses in the skin at the doubler
edge for various thicknesses in a 100” radius fuselage (Dp=8.6 psi
for all, except for 0.036”t Dp=8.0 psi)
100" Radius
25,000
22,000
0.063 tensile
19,000 0.063 bending
s
16,000 0.071 tensile
0.071 bending
13,000
10,000
0
0
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Doubler Thickness
33
 Figure below shows comparison of two primary cracks at the joints
with eccentricity and the respective fracture surfaces.
 The MSD growth model using the tension and bending stresses from
the previous data demonstrates good correlation with the striation data
Fwd (Crack 1) Aft (Crack 4)

0.2 0.12
0.18
0.1
0.16 MSD Simulation
Striation Count
0.14 0.08
AFGROW Strip
Crack Length
0.12
Crack Length
0.1 0.06
0.08
0.04
0.06
0.04 0.02
0.02
0 0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
Airframe Cycles Airframe Cycles
Ref: D. Steadman, R. Ramakrishnan and M. Boudreau, (2006), "Simulation of Multiple Site Damage
Growth", 9th Joint FAA/DoD/NASA Aging Aircraft Conference, Atlanta, GA., pp 12
34
Inspect the most critical fastener
row in each direction
(Notice installation of the proper filler)
35
 What category is this repair? Could baseline zonal
inspection (BZI) be adequate?
How many fastener

rows are there in
each direction?
Why?
36
Another skin lap splice repair. Where is the filler?
37
5. The period to grow a detectable crack to its critical
size is know as the detectable crack growth life
 Based on the confidence in the crack growth life
prediction (loads, stresses, b, material properties, etc.)
a suitable factor between 2 and 4 should be used to
determine the inspection intervals. For example:
 Use a factor of 4 when there is no airplane full-scale
fatigue test data and there is no airplane loads
substantiation through a flight & ground loads survey
 Use a factor of 3 when there has been an airplane
fatigue test but no loads survey or when there has
been an airplane loads survey but no fatigue test
 In the event that both airplane fatigue testing and a
loads survey has been accomplished, use a factor of 2
38
Repair- Limitations
 Additional analysis is require if the subject
repair is not
 At least 1 frame bay (in longitudinal direction) or
2 stringer bays (in circumfrential direction) away
from an existing skin repair, lap and butt joints
 At least 1 complete frame or stringer bay away
from a skin cutout
 Presents of a repair doubler disturbs the otherwise
smooth stress field in the area (due to the
thickness of the repair more load is invited.) This
is why the surrounding bays are more highly
stressed and design of repair in those areas MUST
take that into account.
39
Repair- ICAW
 For each repair develop an Instruction for
Continued Airworthiness, which contains:
 Airplane data
 Complete definition of the repair location and
inspection directions
 Inspection technique, including the call out of the
NDI procedure or the description for the DVI
 Intervals of the repeated inspections
 Replacement time, if any
 Other additional information, instruction or
limitations
40
Repair- ICAW
 Some useful repair notes:
1. Confirm that the surrounding structure is corrosion and damage
free per applicable SRM inspection instructions.
2. Maintain a minimum outside trim radius of 0.38 inch and a
minimum inside trim radius of 0.50 inch unless otherwise
approved by engineering.
3. Stop drilling of cracks must be accomplished per SRM. This
typically includes an eddy current inspection to accurately
locate the end of the crack and a minimum stop drill diameter of
0.25 inch at the end of the crack, followed by an open hole eddy
current inspection, followed by a minimum 1/16 inch oversize of
the stop drill hole.
NOTE: Stop drilling a crack with no further repair action does
not constitute a repair and will not be granted FAA approval
except under extremely limited circumstances.
4. Perform a surface eddy current inspection of all trimmed edges
and an open hole eddy current inspection of fastener holes to
confirm a crack free condition. Use the appropriate non-
destructive testing (NDT) instruction manual and procedure.
41
Repair- ICAW
 Some useful repair notes (Continue):
5. Freeze plugging of holes must be accomplished as described in
the applicable SRM.
NOTE: The SRM only describes the method for installing
freeze plugs. Engineering approval is required for freeze plug
installation at any location.
6. Chamfer or break sharp edges.
7. Maintain a 63 RHR or better surface finish to all reworked and
new surfaces.
8. Treat all repair parts and all bare aluminum surfaces or existing
structure and apply one coat of primer per applicable SRM
and/or Standard Overhaul Procedures Manual (SOPM)
instructions. Use the appropriate primer depending upon
whether the surface is exposed to the airstream. In corrosion-
prone areas, two coats of primer should be used. Allow to dry
between coats.
42
Repair- ICAW
 Some useful repair notes (continue):
9. Observe minimum bend radius listed in the applicable SRM or
other industry reference when forming repair parts from sheet
stock. It is usually advisable to form in either the annealed or
quenched condition and then heat treat. If the minimum bend
radius is exceeded, perform an NDT inspection (Level 3 dye
penetrant inspection or better, or a surface eddy current
inspection) to ensure a crack free condition.
10. Brush or bath cadmium plate corrosion resistant steel (CRES)
parts and prime with two coats of primer per applicable SRM
and/or SOPM instructions. Allow primer to dry between coats.
11. Add fillers or tapered shims as required to limit pull-up to 0.010
inch for flat stock repairs, such as skin doublers, and 0.005 inch
at all other locations. Fabricate from 2024-T3 or 7075-T6 clad
material.
12. Maintain 2D edge margin and 4-6D center-to-center spacing for
all new fasteners.
NOTE: Larger edge margins may be required at certain
locations such as door cutout corners. Consult with engineering
for approval
43
Repair- ICAW
 Some useful repair notes (Continue):
13.Fill all voids and install all repair parts with corrosion resistant
faying surface sealant per the applicable SRM.
14.Install all fasteners and mating hardware per the applicable
SRM. Replace initial fasteners with same type repair fastener.
Oversize initial fasteners up to 1/32 inch if required to meet
hole size and condition requirements.
15.Fastener substitutions are allowed only as specified in the
applicable SRM, or as otherwise defined with engineering
approval.
16.If the fastener location includes steel or titanium parts, install
hex drive bolts in close ream holes. If the fastener location
includes only aluminum parts, install in transition fit holes unless
otherwise instructed. Install per the applicable SRM.
17.Install all bolts, including hex drive bolts, wet with corrosion
resistant faying surface sealant.
18.For increased corrosion protection, or in corrosion-prone areas,
organic corrosion preventive compound may be applied per the
applicable SRM.
44
Guidance for Developing
Damage Tolerance
for Alteration
45
Alteration- New Structures
 For any new structure follow the method outlined
in SACO Guidelines for Developing Damage
Tolerance Based Inspection Programs
 XIII. Inspection Program Limits
As discussed in Section III the inspection program for any
structural area established in accordance with these guidelines
is limited to the period of time that the “rogue” flaw threat is
the predominate one relative to MSD/MED (i.e. normal
fatigue). In general this is envisioned to be half the typical (or
unfactored) fatigue life of the area in question.
 For this reason it might be wise to use the same
method for setting inspection threshold and intervals
as presented for repairs in the previous slides.
 Antenna installations
46
Alteration- New Structures (cont’d)
 How to handle combination of tension and bending?
 A convenient and simple way to handle the combination of
tension and bending stresses in joints such as antenna
installations is outlines here:
 For notched details, such as open hole and joint details, the
best approach is to adjust Kt to include the combined
effects of tension and bending. Then using one or the other
stress as the reference stress to determine a fatigue
margin.
 For instance, if you were analyzing a hole detail with a
tension Ktg of 3.2 and a bending Ktg of 2.2 (from
Peterson's textbook or a similar source), in case Ft=10 Ksi
and Fb=5 ksi (taking the stresses to be the GAG gross
stresses at the hole)
 GAG fpeak at the hole = 3.2×10 + 2.2×5 = 43 ksi
 Then, the effective Ktg = 43/10 = 4.3, if the reference
stress is taken as the tension component of the stress.
47
Alteration- New Structures (cont’d)
 This method works reasonably well when analyzing joint
details, as long as the bending-to-tension (membrane)
stress ratios are close to constant for the most
damaging flight conditions, and the bending stresses are
not the dominant stresses, since most fatigue manual’s
notched and open hole values and load transfer factor
curves are all based on tension data.
 In our example, using this approach, S-N curves would be
conservatively adjusted by the ratio of 3.0/4.3 = 0.698 (3.0
is taken as the 'reference' for Ktg in S-N curves). This
seems like a large knockdown, but note that the reference
stress would be the tension component only (no bending).
 Other rational approaches can be proposed by DER or
other applicants
48
Alteration- Existing Structure
 For any existing structure that is effected by
the alteration, reduce the inspection threshold
and repeat intervals by a factor based on the
increase of the stress: (sNew/sold)3.9
 Provided the increase is not substantial
 Ensure that the OEM inspection is still feasible
 In adjusting the repeat intervals using Boeing DTR
method, the interval should be reduced by a factor of
2 before further adjustment for change in the stress
using Paris’ equation stress ratio.
 This is because the Boeing DTR system is “fleet” based and a
one of structure should be dealt with differently. This
“factored” DTR is referred to as 1st crack DTR.
49
Alteration- ICAW
 For each structural area that requires inspection
develop an Instruction for Continued
Airworthiness, which contains:
 Airplane data
 Definition of the structure and inspection directions
 Inspection technique, including the call out of the NDI
procedure or the description for the DVI
 Intervals of the repeated inspections
 Replacement time, if any
 Other additional information, instruction or limitations
50
Appendix
Requirement for Applying for
Damage Tolerance Delegation
51
Damage Tolerance DER
 Order 8110.37D “DER Guidance Handbook,”
Chapter 3 provides this requirements
 …in conjunction with the education and
experience requirements of paragraph 300
“g” and “h” the applicants should possess:
 A degree in EM, AE, ME or CE,
 A course in Fracture Mechanics, Plus
 The equivalent of 2 full years recent

experience in performing damage
tolerance analysis (includes fatigue and
fracture mechanics analyses)
52
SACO DTA Guidelines
 As part of the requirements, SACO has
developed specific guidelines for the DER to
follow when performing DTA.
 These guidelines where developed with input
from industry and DERs.
 The guidelines provide a common base for
valid assumption to perform DTA
 These guidelines should be thought of as
AC material, but the delegation from
SACO in general is based on them.
 Useful for finding compliance to
requirement of FAR 25.571 in general
53
 The DER applicant should be able to successfully
demonstrate:
 Sound understanding of…
 Selection of PSEs
 Development of fatigue loads
 Development of fatigue profile
 Development of exceedance spectrum
 Development of stress spectrum for each individual
structural component
 Fatigue characteristics, such as
 Stress concentration
 Joint load transfer
 Material properties for fatigue analyses, S-N Curves
 Development of required residual strength loads
54
 The applicant should be able to successfully
demonstrate: (Continue)
 Sound understanding of…
 Fracture mechanics characteristics, such as
 Stress intensity factor
 Material properties for crack growth and residual

strength analyses
 Failure criterion
 Calculation of critical crack length and crack growth life
 Determination of detectable crack length using various
techniques, including NDI
 Determination of inspection threshold
 Determination of repeat inspection intervals
 Development of Instructions for Continued Airworthiness
55

15 - DTA Guidelines For Repairs and Altertaions

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15 - DTA Guidelines For Repairs and Altertaions

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Aeronautics & Astronautics

Draft Guidance for Developing

 Crack propagation between phases of growth

 Stress intensity factors

Parameter RAPID Broek AFGRO

Outside View Inside View

Un-repaired dent aspect ratio:

Partially Repaired Gouge Single Row of 1/8 “ dia fasteners

3 Un-repaired stop-drilled holes in the frame inner chord

Original frame repaired with an angle with 2 fastener

 Here is a picture of a repair: not recommended

Repair end on the

Notice the crack!

One row blind

2. Determine the fatigue loads and develop

sL = DpR/2t + nz (L/S) s1G,max

Fwd (Crack 1) Aft (Crack 4)

Airframe Cycles Airframe Cycles

How many fastener

 A course in Fracture Mechanics, Plus

 The equivalent of 2 full years recent

 Joint load transfer

 Material properties for fatigue analyses, S-N Curves

 Development of required residual strength loads

 Material properties for crack growth and residual

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