Lecture 27 – Distortion in Amplifiers

RIJIL RAMCHAND
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE

 So far, we have considered the gain parameter of an amplifier

to be a constant.

 However, if we apply a variable-frequency sinusoidal input

signal to an amplifier, we will find that gain is a function of
frequency.

 Moreover, the amplifier affects the phase as well as the

amplitude of the sinusoid.

 Therefore, we now give a more general definition of amplifier

gain.

 We define complex gain to be the ratio of the phasor for the

output signal to the phasor for the input signal.

7/17/2018 NITC
 Gain as a Function of Frequency

 If we plot the magnitude of the gain of a typical amplifier versus

frequency, a plot such as the one shown in Figure below results.

 Notice that the gain magnitude is constant over a wide range of

frequencies known as the midband region.

7/17/2018 NITC
 AC Coupling versus Direct Coupling
 In some cases, such as the one shown in Figure (a), the gain drops
to zero at dc (zero frequency).

 Such amplifiers are said to be ac coupled because only ac

signals are amplified.

 These amplifiers are often constructed by cascading several

amplifier circuits or stages that are connected together by coupling
capacitors so that the dc voltages of the amplifier circuits do not
affect the signal source, adjacent stages, or the load.

 This is illustrated in Figure below.

7/17/2018 NITC
 AC Coupling versus Direct Coupling
 Other amplifiers have constant gain all the way down to dc, as
shown in Figure (b).

 They are said to be dc coupled, or direct coupled.

 Amplifiers that are realized as integrated circuits are often dc

coupled because the capacitors or transformers needed for ac
coupling cannot be fabricated in integrated form.

 Audio amplifiers are almost always ac coupled because audible

sounds span the frequency range from about 20 Hz to 15 kHz.

 Therefore, there is no need to provide gain down to dc, and

furthermore, it is not desirable to apply dc voltages to the
loudspeakers.

 Amplifiers for (analog) video signals need to be dc coupled because

video signals have frequency components from dc into the MHz
range.
7/17/2018 NITC
 High-Frequency Region
 As indicated in Figure (a) and (b), the gain of an amplifier always
drops off at high frequencies.

 This is caused either by small amounts of capacitance in parallel

with the signal path or by small inductances in series with the signal
path in the amplifier circuitry, as illustrated in Figure below.

 Recall that the impedance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to

frequency, resulting in an effective short circuit at sufficiently high
frequencies.

 The impedance of an inductor is proportional to frequency, so it

becomes an open circuit at very high frequencies.

7/17/2018 NITC
 High-Frequency Region
 Some of these small capacitances occur because of
stray wiring capacitance between signal-carrying
conductors and ground.
 Other capacitances are integral parts of the active
devices (transistors) necessary for amplification.
 Small inductances result from the magnetic fields
surrounding the conductors in the circuit.
 For example, a critically placed piece of wire one-half
inch long can have enough inductance to limit severely
the frequency response of an amplifier intended to
operate at several gigahertz.

7/17/2018 NITC
 Half-Power Frequencies and Bandwidth
 Usually, we specify the approximate useful frequency
range of an amplifier by giving the frequencies for which
the voltage (or current) gain magnitude is 1/√2 times the
midband gain magnitude.
 These are known as the half-power frequencies
because the output power level is half the value for the
midband region if a constant amplitude variable-
frequency input test signal is used.
 Expressing the factor 1/√2 in decibels, we have 20
log(1/√2) = −3.01 dB.
 Thus, at the half-power frequencies, the voltage (or
current) gain is approximately 3 dB lower than the
midband gain.
7/17/2018 NITC
 Half-Power Frequencies and Bandwidth
 The bandwidth B of an amplifier is the distance between
the half-power frequencies.
 These definitions are illustrated in Figure

7/17/2018 NITC
 Wideband versus Narrowband Amplifiers
 Amplifiers that are either dc coupled or have a lower
half-power frequency that is a small fraction of the upper
half-power frequency are called wideband or baseband
amplifiers.
 Wideband amplifiers are used for signals that
occupy a wide range of frequencies, such as audio
signals (20 Hz to 15 kHz) or video signals (dc into the
MHz range).
 On the other hand, the frequency response of an
amplifier is sometimes deliberately limited to a small
bandwidth compared with the center frequency.
 Such an amplifier is called a narrowband or bandpass
amplifier.
7/17/2018 NITC
 Wideband versus Narrowband Amplifiers
 The gain versus frequency response of a bandpass amplifier is
shown in Figure.

 Bandpass amplifiers are used in radio receivers, where it is desired

to amplify the signal from one transmitter and reject the signals from
other transmitters in adjacent frequency ranges.

7/17/2018 NITC
 LINEAR WAVEFORM DISTORTION

 Amplitude Distortion
 If the gain of an amplifier has a different magnitude for the
various frequency components of the input signal, a form of
distortion known as amplitude distortion occurs.
 Audio systems often suffer from amplitude distortion
because the amplifier, and particularly the loudspeakers,
tend to reduce the amplitudes of the high-pitched and low-
pitched components relative to the midband components.
 This is especially true for telephone systems. Hence, the
music we hear while on hold is of poor quality.

7/17/2018 NITC
7/17/2018 NITC
7/17/2018 NITC
 LINEAR WAVEFORM DISTORTION
 Phase Distortion
 If the phase shift of an amplifier is not proportional to frequency,
phase distortion occurs.

 Zero phase at all frequencies results in an output waveform identical

to the input.

 On the other hand, if the phase shift of the amplifier is proportional

to frequency, the output waveform is a time-shifted version of the
input.

 However, we do not say that distortion has occurred because the

shape of the waveform is unchanged.

 If phase is not proportional to frequency, the waveform shape is

changed in passing through the amplifier and phase distortion has
occurred.
7/17/2018 NITC
7/17/2018 NITC
7/17/2018 NITC
 LINEAR WAVEFORM DISTORTION

 Amplitude and phase distortion are sometimes

called linear distortion because they occur
even though the amplifier is linear (i.e., obeys
superposition).
 Later, we will see that another type of distortion,
known as nonlinear distortion, can also occur in
amplifiers.

7/17/2018 NITC
 Requirements for Distortionless
Amplification
 To avoid linear waveform distortion, an amplifier
should have constant gain magnitude and a phase
response that is linear versus frequency for the
range of frequencies contained in the input signal.
 Of course, departure from these requirements
outside the frequency range of the input signal
components does not result in distortion.
 These requirements for distortion less amplification
are illustrated in Figure

7/17/2018 NITC
 Requirements for Distortionless
Amplification

7/17/2018 NITC
 Definition of Gain Revisited
 As a final comment, recall that we originally defined the
gain of an amplifier to be the ratio of the output signal to
the input:

 However, if linear waveform distortion occurs (or even a

time delay), the ratio of output to input is a function of
time, rather than a constant.
 Thus, we should not try to find the gain of an amplifier by
taking the ratio of the instantaneous output and input.
 Instead, we recognize that gain is a function of frequency
and take the ratio of the phasors for a sinusoidal input
signal to find the (complex) gain for each frequency.
7/17/2018 NITC