Numeric Controls

Computer Aided Manufacturing

• Text Books/Reference Books:
• CAD/ CAM Principles and Applications by PN Rao
• Principles of CAD/CAM/CAE Systems by Kunwoo Lee
• Computer Aided Manufacturing by Tien-Chien Chang et. Al
• Principles of CAD by Joe Rooney and Philip Steadman.
• CADCAM: From Principles to Practice by Chris McMahon and Jimmie
Browne
•
 CAD-CAM SYSTEMS

• Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to assist

in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.

• Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer systems

to plan, manage, and control the operations of a manufacturing plant
through direct or indirect computer interface with plant’s resources.
 Need for CAD/CAM

• To increase productivity of the designer

• To improve quality of the design
• To improve communications
• To create a manufacturing database
• To create and test toolpaths and optimize them
• To help in production scheduling and MRP models
• To have effective shop floor control
The Design Process : Then and Now
CAD/CAM and the new Environment
Generic Definitions
• CAD: Computer Aided Drawing
• CAM: Computer Aided Manufacturing
• CAPP: Computer Aided Process planning
• CAQ: Computer aided Quality
•Rapid Prototyping
RAPID PROTOTYPING

1. Fundamentals of Rapid Prototyping

2. Rapid Prototyping Technologies
3. Applications and Benefits of Rapid Prototyping
• A family of fabrication processes developed to make engineering
prototypes in minimum lead time based on a CAD model of the item
Traditional method is machining
– Can require significant lead-times – several weeks,depending on part
complexity and difficulty in ordering materials
- RP allows a part to be made in hours or days,
given that a computer model of the part has been generated on a CAD
system
 Why is Rapid Prototyping
Important?
• Product designers want to have a physical model of a new part or
product design rather than just a computer model or line drawing
• – Creating a prototype is an integral step in design
• – A virtual prototype (a CAD model of the part) may not be
• sufficient for the designer to visualize the part adequately
• – Using RP to make the prototype, the designer can see and feel the
part and assess its merits and shortcomings
 Introduction to Numerical
Controls.
• Numerical Control (NC) refers to the method of controlling the
manufacturing operation by means of directly inserted coded
numerical instructions into the machine tool.
• It is important to realize that NC is not a machining method, rather, it
is a concept of machine control.
• Although the most popular applications of NC are in machining, NC
can be applied to many other operations, including welding, sheet
metalworking, riveting, etc.
• RP – Two Basic Categories:
1. Material removal RP - machining, using a dedicated CNC machine that is
available to the design department on short notice
• – Starting material is often wax
Easy to machine
Can be melted and resolidified.
The CNC machines are often small - called desktop machining
• 2. Material addition RP - adds layers of material one at a time to build the
solid part from bottom to top
 Rapid Prototyping
• Steps to Prepare Control Instructions:
1. Geometric modeling - model the component on a CAD system to
define its enclosed
volume
2. Tessellation of the geometric model - the CAD model is converted into
a computerized format that approximates its surfaces by facets (triangles
or polygons)
3. Slicing of the model into layers – computerized model is sliced into
closely-spaced parallel horizontal layers
• Tessellation is the process of creating a two dimensional plane using
the repetition of a geometric shape with no overlaps and no gaps.
 Rapid Prototyping applications:
• Applications of rapid prototyping can be classified into three
categories:
1. Design
2. Engineering analysis and planning
3. Tooling and manufacturing
 Design Applications
• Designers are able to confirm their design by building a real physical
model in minimum time using RP
• Design benefits of RP:
– Reduced lead times to produce prototypes
– Improved ability to visualize part geometry
– Early detection of design errors
– Increased capability to compute mass properties
Engineering Analysis and Planning
• Existence of part allows certain engineering analysis and planning
activities to be accomplished that would be more difficult without the
physical entity
– Comparison of different shapes and styles to determine aesthetic
appeal
– Wind tunnel testing of streamline shapes
– Stress analysis of physical model
– Fabrication of pre-production parts for process planning and tool
design
 Tooling Applications
• Called rapid tool making (RTM) when RP is used to fabricate
production tooling
• Two approaches for tool-making:
1. Indirect RTM method
2. Direct RTM method
Rapid Tooling:
• Indirect tooling incorporates pattern-based methods where the tool is
cast from a rapid prototype that depicts the part to be molded.
• Indirect Rapid Tooling Processes Indirect rapid tooling processes
produce molds by forming them from a pattern. A common example
of this technique is RTV, or room temperature vulcanized rubber
molding.
Rapid Tooling
• Typically, the pattern used to produce this type of indirect rapid tooling is constructed
using a rapid prototyping machine.
• Following the pattern’s construction, it is postprocessed to prepare it for mold creation.
• Once post-processed, development of the first mold half typically begins by securing the
pattern in oil-based clay, or other building materials, and constructing the parting line.
• Silicone RTV molding material is then poured around the pattern and allowed to cure.
Typically, it is necessary to apply a vacuum to either the RTV molding material before
pouring, or the tooling assembly after pouring, to remove air bubbles from the molding
material.
• Once the silicone has cured, the second mold half is prepared and poured. A gate for
injection is added along with venting to allow air in the mold to escape.
Rapid Tooling
• Silicone RTV molding material is then poured around the pattern and allowed to cure.
Typically, it is necessary to apply a vacuum to either the RTV molding material before
pouring, or the tooling assembly after pouring, to remove air bubbles from the molding
material.
• Once the silicone has cured, the second mold half is prepared and poured. A gate for
injection is added along with venting to allow air in the mold to escape Once the second
mold half cures, the pattern is removed and the mold is prepared for use.
• RTV tooling can be used to mold small to medium quantities of parts out of a large
variety of urethane, epoxy, or other polymer materials. RTV tooling can typically be used
to mold many parts before replacement tooling becomes necessary. The tool life
depends on the casting material, accuracy, finish requirements, and the complexity of
the part geometry. Dozens of simple parts can be produced from a single silicone rubber
mold, but 10-20 is typical if the parts are more complex
History
• The invention of numerical control has been due to the pioneering works of John T.
Parsons in the year 1940, when he tried to generate a curve automatically by milling
cutters by providing coordinate motions.
• In the late 1940s Parsons conceived the method of using punched cards containing
coordinate position system to control a machine tool.
• The machine directed to move in small increments and generate the desired finish. In
the year, 1948, Parsons demonstrated this concept to the US Air Force, who sponsored
the series of project at laboratories of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
• After lots of research MIT was able to demonstrate first NC prototype in the year 1952
and in the next year they were able to prove the potential applications of the NC.
•
Concept:

• PRINCIPLE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL

“a system in which actions are controlled by direct insertion of
numerical data at some point. The system must automatically interpret
this data.”
• Numerical control, popularly known as the NC is very commonly used
in the machine tools. Numerical control is defined as the form of
programmable automation, in which the process is controlled by the
number, letters, and symbols.
• In case of the machine tools this programmable automation is used
for the operation of the machines.
Block Diagram
Components of the Numerical
Control System:
• There are three important components of the numerical control or NC
system. These are:
1) Program of instructions;
2) Controller unit, also called as the machine control unit (MCU);
3) Machine tool.
1. Program of Instructions
• The program of instructions of the NC machine is the step-by-step set
of instructions that tells the machines what it has to do.
• It is coded in numerical or symbolic form on some type of input
medium that can be interpreted by the controller unit.
• The most common one is the 1-inch-wide punched tape. Over the
years, other forms of input media has been used, including punched
cards, magnetic tape, and even 35mm motion picture film.
Program of instructions:
• MDI: Manual Data input

• DNC (Direct Numeric Control)

2) Controller Unit or Machine Controller Unit (MCU)

• The controller unit is most vital parts part of the NC and CNC machines.
• The controller unit is made of the electronics components. It reads and
interprets the program of instructions and converts them in the
mechanical actions of the machine tool.
• Thus the controller unit forms an important link between the program
and the machine tool.
• The typical control unit comprises of tape reader, a data buffer, signal
output channels to the machine tools, feedback channel from the
machine tool, and the sequence control to coordinate the overall
machining operation.
3) Machine Tool

• It is the machine tool that performs the actual machining operations.

The machine tool can be any machine like lathe, drilling machine,
milling machine etc. The machine tool is the controlled part of the NC
system..
• Motion Control:
(1) Point to Point (PTP);
(2) Continuous (Contouring) Path;
1. Point to Point Control;
• To move the machine table or spindle to a specified position so that
machining operations may be performed at that point.
• Path taken to reach the specific point is not defined.
• Movement from one point to the next is non-machining, it is made as
rapidly as possible.
• In this the control has the capability to operate in all 3 axes, but not
necessary simultaneously
• As a result it would be possible to move the tool to any point ( X axis
or Y axis) and carry out the machining operation in Z-axis
Point to Point Control
Straight Line Motion Control System
• The NC systems, in which the tool works along a straight line along
with point to point mode the machine tool has the capability to carry
out continuous motion in each of the axis direction.
2) Continuous (Contouring) Path
• To control two or more axes simultaneously to get desired shape.
• To control not only the destinations, but also the paths through which
the tool reaches these destinations.
• In the process of machining, the tool contacts the workpiece.
• The control system must be able to accept information regarding
velocities and positions of the machine slides.
• Feed rates should be programmed
• Eg. Milling, routing machining etc.
2) Continuous (Contouring) Path
Types of Numerical Control:
• Hard wired Numerical Control:
• Characterized by part program input media such as paper tape, or
magnetic tape.

• Soft Wired Numerical Control:

• Availability of embedded computer and enhanced memory in the
controller use of microprocessors.
Types of communication:
1. Parallel transmission: involves the movement of information
between the two devices in parallel using a large number of
individual wires.
2. The number of wires connecting will be based on the data being
sent in parallel such as 8,16 or 32 bit.
3. Distances between the communicating equipment has to be small
in order to reduce the cost of cabling.
Types of communication
• Series Transmission:
• There is a single wire that sends data from one terminal to the other.
• Data will move in single bits.
• Eg 1011
• However the data is stored in the parallel in the computer or MCU in
the form of words
• The data has to be reassembled to make the necessary data.
Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
• Direct Numerical control (DNC) :Is the method used in the shop floor to connect a number
of CNC machine tools together and controlled by a single computer (PC).
a. Controlling means that the MCU of each CNC machine tool is directly under the control
of DNC computer.
b. The tape is not used in the DNC system; hence a central time-sharing computer is used.

Typical functions served by DNC are;

1. Communications.
2. Part program storage.
3. Ancillary functions.
Objectives of DNC system:

1. Communications:
. To upload and download CNC programs to and fro from the machine tools simultaneously and
directly from the CNC systems.
. Provides a remote program buffer.

2. Ancillary functions
• Integrating with the CAD/CAM system or the part programming system for the purpose of
direct transfer of the part program into the disk storage of the DNC computer
• Possibility of integrating with the shop floor control system
Objectives of DNC system.
3. Part Program storage:
a.it is possible to input, edit, copy and delete programs at the DNC computers.
b. There are many times when the same job is to be made on different
machines tools in which case the programs will be different .Instead of storing
the different versions of the same part program the CLDATA can be stored and
post processed for the particular MCU when it is to be downloaded.
c. It can manage the tool offsets. Complete tool library can be maintained by
the DNC computer along with the offsets. So they can be downloaded into the
MCU as and when required.
Installation modes.
• Typically the data is transmitted to the machine tools via a serial port
RS 232C port.
• When a normal computer under windows operating system is used
the number of serial ports available for direct connection to the CNC
machine tools are limited to four.
• A multiplexer is a mechanical or electronic switch device through
which a single serial port can be shared by a number of CNC machine
tools.
• A common practice for downloading part programs.
  

 
DIRECT NUMERIC CONTROL
When to use DNC.
1. When the interconnected machines are large in number.
2. When the part program sizes are very large and cannot be held in
the part program memory of the MCU.
3. Part program variety is large and batch sizes are small.
Difference between NC and CNC

• NC controllers must function within the parameters of direct, simple

tasks, CNC programming enables machinery to analyze data and
adapt to changing circumstances.
Difference between DNC and CNC
• Main differences are :
1. DNC computers distribute instructional data to and collect from a large number of
machines. CNC computers control only one machine or a small number of machines.
2. DNC computers occupy a location that is typically remote from the machines under their
control. CNC computers are located very near their machine tools.
3. DNC softwrae is developed not only to control individual pieces of production technology,but
also to serve as part of management information system in the manufacturing sector of the
firm. CNC software is developed to augment the capabilities of a particular machine tool.
4. Except for the fact that a digital computer is used, CNC machines are similar and the part
programs are entered in a similar manner. Punched tapes are still the common device for
entering the part program into the system
How does a CNC machine work
• All CNC machining begins with a part program, which is a sequential
instructions or coded commands that direct the specific machine functions.
• The part program may be manually generated or, more commonly,
generated by computer aided part programming systems
• All computer controlled machines are able to accurately and repeatedly
control motion in various directions. Each of these directions of motion is
called an axis. Depending on the machine type there are commonly two to
five axes.
• .The two most common axis types are linear (driven along a straight path)
and rotary (driven along a circular path).
• The two most common axis types are linear (driven along a straight
path) and rotary (driven along a circular path).
• In each axis a mechanical component called a “machine slide” that
moves.
• A servo drive motor supplies the necessary power for the movement
of the machine slides.
• The slides are driven by the servo motors through recirculating ball
screws and nut assemblies.
• This system is called “Axes Drive System”.
• The workpiece coordinate systems ( X and Y coordinates) of the
starting and ending point have to be coded in the NC program.
• Similarly the information regarding the direction of rotation and
speed of spindle, use of coolant and feed rate is also coded.
• The cnc controller decodes the positioning information in the NC
programs and the slide is moved to the programmed position at the
required feed rate.
• Each slide is fitted with a feedback transducer, which continuously
monitors and compares with the programmed position as well as the
feed rate.
In a nut shell
• The tool or material moves.
• Tools can operate in 1-5 axes.
• Larger machines have a machine control unit (MCU) which manages
operations.
• Movement is controlled by a motors .
• Feedback is provided by sensors.  Tool magazines are used to
change tools automatically.
Example
•Let us assume that a hole is to be drilled at the location X=100 & Y=150.
1.The corresponding block is of the program is read by the control systems and necessary inputs are sent
to the X and Y –axis servomotors.
2.These motors drives the respective slides to the commanded positions.
3.When the distance information from the feedback devices equals the programmed values, the slide
movement stops.
4.The input is then given to the Z-axis servomotor to perform the drilling operation.
5.The system switches on the motor, driving the spindle carrying the drill and commands the Z-axis
servomotor to move at the programmed feed rate into the work piece till the programmed depth is
reached.
6.The Z-axis feedback transducer ensures the correct depth and feed rate.
7.The drill is then withdrawn to the desired height and the machine starts the positioning movement to
the next location of the drill.
Principles of operation of a CNC
Servo system.
1.A CNC servo system works on the digital principle.
2.In a digital system, the control signal is the form of electrical pulses.
3.Consider the turning operation.
4.The tool has to move through a distance of 100 mm to carry out
turning operation.
5.This distance is converted into pulses-one pulses for each micrometer
(1/1000 of a mm)
6. The resolution of the system can be improved by a factor called
Command Multiply Ratio (CMR).
Feed Back system.
• The feedback involves measurement of position as well as feed
velocity( feed rate).
• In a majority of the cases, the encoder which is used as a feedback
device generates 2000, 2500 or 3000 pulses per revolution.
• The detect multiple ratio (DMR) matches the resolution of the
feedback transducer ( the pulses produced by the transducer) and the
pulses necessary to move the slide to the required position.
• The feedback encoder is usually mounted on the ball screw or on the
motor shaft.
Feed back system:
• The feedback signal for the feed rate is the pulse rate or pulse frequency.
• The frequency/voltage converter converts the pulse frequency into an analog voltage
and this is compared with the input signal to the motor.
• The encoder generates pulses corresponding to the rotation of the motor (which is
proportional to the table movement) .
• The DMR is used to equalize the command pulse and the pulse generated by the
encoder.
• The pulses corresponding to the table position are compared to ( or subtracted ) from
the command pulse.
• When the feedback pulses become equal to the command pulse, the table reaches the
stipulated position in the program.
Feed back devices:
• Optical Rotary Encoder:
1.Converts rotary motor sequence of digital pulses
2.The pulses are counted to convert to either absolute or incremental.
“The absolute encoder provides the exact position and the incremental encoder gives the relative position of
the shaft in terms of digital pulses.”
3. The optical encoder consists of a disk with a number of accurately etched equidistant lines or slots along the
periphery.
4. The encoder disk is attached to the shaft of the machine whose rotary position needs to monitored
5.The disc is placed between a light source and a light-measuring device. When the disc rotates the lines are
interrupted and the light-measuring device counts the number of times the light is interrupted.
6. By a careful counting and appropriate calculations it is possible to know the position traversed by the shaft.
.
Incremental encoder:
1.The encoder disk of an incremental encoder consists of one track
and two sensors, whose outputs are called channel A and channel B.
2.As the shaft rotates, pulse trains occurs on this channel at a
frequency proportional to the rotational speed.
3.The phase difference between these two signals yield the direction
of rotation.
4.The o/p gets multiplied by 4 times to yield a higher resolution.
Linear scales.
• In the linear scale, there is finely graduated scale (grating) made up of either
glass or stainless steel which provides a measuring surface along with a scanning
unit.
• One of them is fixed to the stationery part while the other to moving part.
• The scanning unit consists of a light source (such as an infra red LED, a glass grid
with graduated windows and some photo diodes as receptors.
• For linear measurements in a linear scales, optical gratings are used.
• when two gratings overlap each other then depending upon the displacement, a
Moire Fringe pattern is formed.
• Actual distance moved by the fringe pattern depends on grating spacing, the
angle of grating and the distance moved.
Actuation systems:

• The rotary motion from the drive motor needs to be converted to

linear motion to drive various axes of machine tool.
• Previously ACME threads were used for this purpose
• Major limitation was high friction produced due to sliding contact
between the nut and the screw.
• In order to reduce the friction, there is a problem of back lash
whenever there is a reversal of motion.
Actuation systems:

• Hence most of the system uses a lead screw with a recirculating ball nut.
• The nut is replaced by a series of ball which circulate in the form of
threads.
• The balls at the end of the thread position in the nut will be repositioned
back into the beginning of a thread form by the deflector.
• The most common form of nut used is where the balls at the end of the
thread will be picked up by a return tube which recirculates the ball to the
beginning of the load zone by providing continuous rolling motion.
Recirculating ball screws.
• Recirculating ball screws are essentially lead screws with a train of ball bearings riding
and rolling between the screw and the nut in a track.
1.The primary advantage of ball screws over lead screws is higher transmission efficiency
resulting in less screw heating which can impact the stage’s repeatability and accuracy.
Also, because of the reduced friction, most ball screw stages can run at higher speeds
and can perform smaller incremental motions compared to similar lead screw driven
stages.
2.Additional advantages of ball screws are predictable service life and lower wear rate.
3.However, ball screws are not self-locking, which limits their use in vertical applications.
4.Also, ball screws generate more noise than lead screws due to the recirculating balls in
the nut.
Lead screw efficiencies

Type
Efficiency
High Median Low

Recirculating Ball 95 90 85
screw-nut
Acme with nut 55 40 35
Open and closed feed back loop
CNC Tooling
• One of most important components in machining process
Performance will determine efficiency of operation
• Two basic types (excluding abrasives)
– Single point and multiple point
• Must have rake and clearance angles ground or formed on them
CNC Tooling materials
• Toolbits generally made of seven materials
– High-speed steel
– Cast alloys (such as satellite)
– Cemented carbides
– Ceramics
– Cermets
– Cubic Boron Nitride
– Polycrystalline Diamond
Cutting Tool Properties
• Hardness
– Cutting tool material must be 1 1/2 times harder than the material it is being used to machine.
• Capable of maintaining a red hardness during machining operation
– Red hardness: ability of cutting tool to maintain sharp cutting edge
– Also referred to as hot hardness or hot strength
• Wear Resistance
– Able to maintain sharpened edge throughout the cutting operation
– Same as abrasive resistance
• Shock Resistance
– Able to take the cutting loads and forces.
Cutting Tool materials
• High Speed Steel:
-Composition: Significant quantities of Tungsten (W), Molybdenum,
chromium and vanadium.
-Tungsten & Molybdenum contributes to hardness.
- The main advantages of HSS is high hardness, hot hardness, good wear
resistance & high toughness.
- Can take heavy cuts, withstand shock and maintain sharp cutting edge
under red heat.
-Cobalt added if more red hardness desired.
Carbide Cutting Tools

• First used in Germany during WW II as substitute for diamonds

• Various types of cemented (sintered)
• carbides developed to suit different materials and machining
operations
– Good wear resistance
– Operate at speeds ranging 150 to 1200 sf/min
• Can machine metals at speeds that cause cutting edge to become red
hot without loosing hardness.
Cemented Carbides:
• Manufacture of Cemented Carbides
• Products of powder metallurgy process;
– Tantalum, titanium, niobium
• Operations;
– Blending
– Compaction
– Sintering
Blending
• Five types of powders
• – Tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, cobalt, tantalum carbide,
niobium carbide
• One or combination blended in different proportions depending on
grade desired
• Powder mixed in alcohol (24 to 190 h).
• Alcohol drained off.
• Paraffin added to simplify pressing operation.
Compaction

• Must be molded to shape and size

• Loose powder is compressed and densified into
a shape known as a green compact,usually at
room temperature.
• High product density and the uniformity of that
density throughout the compact are generally
desired characteristics.
• Most compacting is done with mechanical
presses and rigid tools, but hydraulic and
hybrid (combinations of
mechanical,hydraulic,and pneumatic) presses
can also be used.
Sintering
• Last step in process
• In the sintering operation, the pressed-powder compacts are heated in a
controlled atmosphere to a temperature below the melting point but high
enough to permit solid-state diffusion,and held for sufficient time to permit
bonding of the particles
• Converts presintered machine blanks into cemented carbide
• Carried out in either hydrogen atmosphere or vacuum
– Temperatures between 2550º and 2730º F
• Binder (cobalt) unites and cements carbide powders into dense structure
of extremely hard carbide crystals
Cemented-Carbide Applications

• Used extensively in manufacture of metal-cutting tools

–Extreme hardness and good wear-resistance
• First used in machining operations as lathe cutting tools
• Majority are single-point cutting tools used on lathes and milling
machines
General Rules for Selection of Proper
Cemented-Carbide Grade

1. Use grade with lowest cobalt content and finest grain size
2. Use straight tungsten carbide grades to combat abrasive wear
3. To combat cratering, seizing, welding, and galling, use titanium
carbide grades.
4. For crater and abrasive wear resistance, use tantalum carbide grades.
5. Use tantalum carbide grades for heavy cuts in steel, when heat and
pressure might deform cutting edge.
Types of Carbide Lathe Cutting Tools
• Blazed-tip type
– Cemented-carbide tips brazed to steel shanks
– Wide variety of styles and sizes
• Indexable insert type
– Throwaway inserts
– Wide variety of shapes: triangular, square, diamond, and round
• Triangular: has three cutting edges
– Inserts held mechanically in special holder
Cermets
• The name, cermet, is derived from the words CERAMIC and METAL
(representing carbide).
• Special cemented carbides having predominantly tantalum carbides
(TaC) with Ni and Mo as binder for finish machining of steels and
malleable cast irons. they are sometimes called cermets.
• Special features includes high quality surface finish and high speed
cutting
Cermets
Cermets

Advantages over carbides Limitations over carbides

-Higher hot hardness and less toughness
oxidation resistances. -lower thermal conductivity
-Superior wear resistance, longer -greater thermal expansion
tool life and can operate at
higher cutting speeds.
-The better finish imparted by the
cermets is due to its low level of
chemical reaction with iron.
Coated Carbides
• A thin ( about 5 micrometer) coating of TiN has been used on
cemented carbide tools.
• These coatings such as titanium carbide, titanium nitride, aluminum
oxide, hafnium carbide, hafnium carbide are deposited generally on
the carbide tool bits by Chemical Vapour Deposition.
• Two or three materials in coating give tool special qualities
– Innermost layer of titanium carbide
– Thick layer of aluminum oxide
– Third, very thin layer titanium nitride
Coated Carbide Inserts

• Titanium carbide
– High wear and abrasion resistance (moderate speed)
– Used for roughing and finishing
• Titanium nitride
– Extremely hard, good crater resistance
– Excellent lubricating properties
• Aluminum oxide
– Provides chemical stability
– Maintains hardness at high temperature
Ceramics:
• Alumina based high refractory materials
• Withstand temperatures, chemically more stable and have higher wear
resistance.
• Disadvantages include: low strength, poor thermal characteristics, and the
tendency of chipping .
• Titanium carbide are added to enhance the transverse rupture strength.
• Some yittria may also be added as a sintering agent.
• Other ceramics of recent origin are alumina-titanium diboride, alumina-
zirconia-tungsten compound and Silicon-aluminum-oxygen-nitrogen
compound.
Diamonds
• Used in the m/c of Aluminum, Bronze and plastics.
• Advantages.
-High hardness, good thermal conductivity, very low friction, non adherence to
most materials, ability to maintain a sharp edge for a long period especially m/c
soft materials such as Cu and Al.
• Limitations:
Wears rapidly when machining or grinding steel.
Has a tendency to revert at high temperatures (700 Celsius) to graphite or oxidize
to air.
Brittle & costly to shape into tools.
Guidelines for using diamond tools
• Positive rake tooling is recommended for the vast majority of diamond
tooling applications.
• If BUE is a problem, increasing cutting speed and using more positive
rake angles may eliminate it.
• If edge breakage and chipping are problems, one can reduce the feed
rate.
• Coolants are not generally used in diamond machining unless, as in the
machining of plastics, it is necessary to reduce airborne dust particles.
• Diamond tools can be reground.
Automatic Tool Changer
ATC
Tool Magazine
• Tool magazines to be used have to be considered in terms of following
attributes;
 Storage capacity
 Type and shape
 Tool change procedure
Storage Capacity:
• Starts with 12 and can go as high as 200.
• 30 to 60 appears to be most common type.
Type and Shape
• The simplest type of tool
magazine is a turret. This
method combines tool storage
with tool-change procedure,
without the need for a tool
change arm.
Type and Shape
• Drum or disc type magazine.
Mechanism:-
1. The drum rotates for the purpose of tool change to bring the required
tool to the tool change arm.
2. The diameter of the disc is indicative of the no of tools it can hold.
3. As the no of tools in the magazine increases, its diameter becomes too
large.
4. In chain type magazine, the tools are attached to the pockets which in
turn are attached to the chain which is moving on appropriate sprockets.
Type and Shape
5.As the chain can be arranged to
follow any path.
6. The capacity may be as small as
30 to as high as 100.
Tool Changing:-

• Tool changing arm is required to perform the tool transfer, in case of other tool magazines.
• The tool-change activity requires the following operations.
1. Stopping the spindle at the correct orientation for the tool change arm to pick the tool from spindle
2. Tool-change arm to move to the spindle
3. Tool-change arm to pick the tool from the spindle.
4. Tool-change arm to index to reach the tool magazine
5. Place the tool in the tool magazine
6. Indexing the tool magazine to bring the required tool to the tool change position
7. Tool-change arm to pick the tool from the tool magazine
8. Tool-change arm to index to reach the spindle
9. New tool is placed in the spindle
10.Tool-change arm moves into the parking position.
The above sequence of events are true in the case of a tool-change arm only having a single gripper.
In case of double gripper
In case of double gripper
 Tool length and Tool offset.
Tool Length offset:
CNC machinery has revolutionized tool setting by the Programmable Tool
Register.
Tool Register:
1. Is a memory spot in the computer where the length of the tool maybe
stored.
2. When the tool is called up the computer checks the tool register to see the
Tool register to see how much offset has been programmed for the tool.
3. Checks the comments for tool offset.
4. Then MCU shifts the Z-axis by the amount stored in the offset register.
• There are two codes intended to set up linear motion modes:
• - G00 specifies rapids motion.
• - G01 specifies feed motion.
G00 Codes:
Rapids motion tells your machine to move at its fastest possible speed.
1. G00 is used to position the cutter near where you want to start cutting, but we never enter a cut with G00.
2. Doing so by mistake ensures a broken cutter or worse as rapids motion is way too fast for any kind of
cutting.
3. Most controllers start up with G00 active when you first turn on the machine. That's because the part
program has to manuever the cutter into position near the cut before you can begin removing material.
4. Once the cutter is ready and you want to make cutting motions, you would typically use G01 to specify
feed motion.
Consider this command.
G91 G28 Z0
In step one of G28, the tool will move to an intermediate position that is incrementally nothing
(zero) from its current position in Z. In step two, it will go to the zero return position in Z (only).
Note that X and Y will not move. For all intents and purposes, we're telling the machine to move
the tool straight to its zero return position in Z.
G91 G28 X1.0 Y2.0 Z1.5
First, the machine will simultaneously move 1.0 (plus) in X, 2.0 (plus) in Y and 1.5 (plus) in Z. This is
the intermediate position. Next, all three axes will simultaneously move to the zero return position.
A special light—the axis origin light—will be illuminated as each axis reaches the zero return
position.
Specifying the G28 Intermediate Position on Mills
The intermediate position is specified using one or more position words (X, Y, or Z) after the G28.
If the machine is in absolute mode, those position coordinates are relative to
program zero (part zero). In relative mode, the coordinates are relative to the tool's current
position. Let's try some examples:
Move Straight to the Reference Position
G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
In this case, we're telling the machine the incremental position is at 0, 0, 0 relative to the tool's
position. Since it thinks it is already at the intermediate position, this version essentially causes the
intermediate position to be ignored and we get coordinated motion straight to the reference
position.
Move straight a distance, then on to the Reference position
G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z4.0
This variation is telling G28 that the intermediate position is 4" above the current tool position,
hence the machine moves up 4" before heading straight from there to the reference position. This
is much less likely to hit some errant fixture or part of the workpiece than just commanding a move
straight to the reference position.