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CAST DENTAL ALLOYS

& WROUGHT ALLOYS

DR THULFIQAR
DM
BLOCK 3
INTRODUCTION
• Both cast and wrought alloys have, respectively,
been used in dentistry.
• General requirements of cast alloys are that they
(1) be easily melted,
(2) cast and finished,
(3) be corrosion and tarnish resistant in mouth
(4) not contain toxic or allergenic components
(biocompatible)
TYPES
A. Dental Casting Alloys
Main types of dental casting alloys in use:
1. Gold alloys (high-content & medium-content):
Bridges; crowns; inlays; clasps; lingual bars; root
canal posts; porcelain fused to metal
2. Cobalt-chromium: Framework of partial dentures
3. Nickel-chromium: Bridges; crowns; porcelain
fused to metal
4. Silver-palladium: Bridges; crowns; porcelain
fused to metal
5. High-content palladium: Porcelain fused to
metal
B. Wrought Alloys
Wrought alloys, i.e.
- those which have been work hardened,
- are often used where superior mechanical
properties are required, and
- often in the form of wires.
Examples of wires include the following:
1. Gold alloy wires: Clasps; root canal posts
2. Cobalt-chromium-nickel wires: Clasps; root
canal posts
3. Stainless steel wires: Orthodontic applications
4. Nickel-Titanium wires: Orthodontic applications
DIRECT GOLD FILLING
• Direct-filling Gold : Work hardened gold was
formerly used for filling teeth
• Pure gold, available in various forms including gold
foil, was condensed into a cavity
• Gold plugger: An instrument used to condense
gold foil into cavity which, in turn, was struck with a
wooden mallet.
• The pressure exerted on the material resulted in
cohesion of the various incremental additions
 work hardened the material.
• While the technique was considerably developed and
refined, the method was time-consuming and
stressful and is little used nowadays.
• In addition, alloys could be work-hardened by a
process of SWAGING –
adapting an alloy sheet to the shape of the palate
on a suitable die, as relevant to the production of
a wrought denture base
GOLD CASTING ALLOYS
• Suitably-formulated gold alloys are sufficiently hard
to be used directly in the mouth, in the form of
castings.
• These may encompass inlays, crowns, bridges, clasps
A wax pattern is formed to the required shape,
followed by investing and casting of the alloy.
Generally, the casting may then be cemented in
place after a suitable try-in.
• Some gold alloy formulations allow the hardness of
the casting to be varied by a heat treatment prior to
final cementation.
• In gold alloys, however, it is of importance that the
total base metal content is not sufficiently great that
corrosion, and tarnish, resistance is significantly
compromised.
• The main types of dental casting alloys which contain
gold as a major component are as follows:
1. High-content gold alloys
2. Porcelain fused to metal (PFM) alloys
3. Medium-content gold alloys
1. HIGH CONTENT GOLD ALLOYS
• The attraction of high-content gold alloys as casting
materials is four-fold:
i. Corrosion resistant
ii. Biocompatible
iii. Easily melted & cast
iv. Full compensation possible for shrinkage on
cooling

• Many of the materials are formulated to conform


with ISO Standard 1562 - Dental casting gold alloys.
This International Standard recognises four types of
high-content gold alloy:
• Type I:
soft (ordinarily used for dental restorations and
appliances which are subject to very slight
stress and where burnishing is required)

• Type II:
medium (ordinarily used for dental restorations
and appliances which are subject to moderate
stress: 3/4 crowns, abutments, pontics, full
crowns and saddles)
• Type III:
hard (ordinarily used for dental restorations
and appliances which are subject to high stress:
thin 3/4 crowns, thin cast backings, abutments,
pontics, full crowns and saddles)

• Type IV:
extra hard (ordinarily used for dental
restorations and appliances which are thin in
cross-section and subject to very high stress:
saddles, bars, clasps, crowns, thimbles and unit
castings)
ISO 1562 ALLOYS - SELECTED REQUIREMENTS
HIGH GOLD-CONTENT ALLOYS
GENERAL COMPOSITIONS
Traditional terminology described
• Types I-III as Inlay Golds (soft-medium-hard),
• Type IV as Partial Denture Gold,
latter based on the previous use of this material as the
framework for a partial denture.
• The composition of these alloys must be at least
75% (wt) gold and metals of the platinum group
(platinum, palladium, iridium, rhodium, ruthenium,
osmium), in the case of Type IV, with
correspondingly higher values for the other types.

• This requirement is to ensure that the materials do


not tarnish, or corrode, in the mouth.
• The more important alloying elements are
silver (Ag),
copper (Cu),
platinum (Pt) and
palladium (Pd).
• Iridium (Ir) may be present as a grain refining agent
(0.005% wt, approx).

• In addition to a solution hardening effect, other


important effects of these additions are as follows:
Silver: Reduces the melting range of the alloy
Palladium: May replace platinum
Copper & Platinum: Order hardening effects
(for Cu content of > 8% (wt) approx)
2. PORCELAIN FUSED TO METAL (PFM)
GOLD ALLOYS

• Dental porcelain is brittle and will only tolerate


relatively small strains (about 0.1%) before failure.

• The utility of dental porcelain, as restorative, can be


extended in the ‘porcelain fused to metal’ technique

• ENAMELLING :The technique where a thin layer of


dental porcelain is fused to a metal casting which
then presents an aesthetic crown, bridge, etc.
• For a successful enamelling operation
The coefficient of thermal expansion of the
porcelain must be suitably matched with that of
the alloy
The melting range of the alloy must be raised
sufficiently above the fusion temperature of the
porcelain.

• It is important that the alloy does not contain


components which form coloured oxides, at the
interface, or which give rise to colour effects
within the porcelain.
• Copper is not used in the porcelain-bonding gold
alloys.
• There are two bonding mechanisms possible
whereby dental porcelain may be retained to the
structure of a metal casting:

1. Mechanical interaction
2. Adhesion (chemical bonding)
MECHANICAL BONDING
• The mechanical bonding of porcelain with metal
results from fusion of the porcelain into undercuts
in the metal surface.
• Suitable undercuts can be created by grit-
blasting the surface to be coated.
• Before fusion of the porcelain,
this metal surface must be thoroughly clean and
degreased.
Otherwise, the porcelain will not wet the surface
evenly and cracks may nucleate into the porcelain
where the contact with the metal is poor
ADHESION
• The chemical structure of dental porcelain bears little
obvious similarity with the structure of metals.
• Thus, the direct chemical bonding of porcelain to
metal would appear to be unlikely.
• However, certain metal ions can be incorporated into
dental porcelain, outside of the chain network, in the
form of ‘network-modifying oxides’
• If these metal ions are obtained from the surface of
the metal casting, a gradual structural transition
between pure oxide and pure metal may be achieved.
Such circumstances would make chemical bonding
possible.
• In effect, chemical bonding of porcelain to metal is
obtained by fusion of the porcelain to a metal
oxide layer on the surface of the casting.

• Ideally, this surface oxide layer


• should be extremely thin & continuous with the
underlying metal structure (ie no sharp division
between oxide & metal).
• may be a ‘passive layer’, as is present on
passivating alloys such as Ni-Cr, or
• may be an ‘artificial’ oxide layer created on a gold
alloy at the fusion temperature.
• This is achieved by including small quantities of
oxidisable metals, such as iron (Fe) or tin (Sn), in the
alloy composition.
• On heating the gold casting to the fusion
temperature of porcelain, these base metals travel to
the surface and oxidise to form the thin oxide layer.
• This oxide surface is then chemically compatible with
the porcelain (some metal ion migration will also
occur) to allow chemical bonding
• The main modes of failure in a porcelain to metal
restoration may be classified as follows (see next
slide):
1. Failure within the porcelain
2. Failure at the metal-porcelain interface
3. Failure within the metal oxide layer
FAILURE
•Failure at the metal-porcelain interface : can be
reduced by so-called ‘compression bonding’.
•This arises from the presence of chemical bonding
& a slight mis-match in the respective coefficients of
thermal expansion of the porcelain and alloy.
•The composition of the porcelain is such that the
thermal expansion of the material is about 5-10%
less than that of the alloy (the latter being 15
ppm/°C, approx).
•Cooling the fused porcelain-metal combination
results in the metal contracting somewhat more
than the ceramic (too great a mis-match would
result in shearing in the chemical bonding).
• Due to the presence of chemical bonding, the
porcelain is subjected to a compressive strain at
the interface.
• This restricts the developments of cracks and
strengthens the combination.
• Potassium oxide (K2O) has the effect of
increasing the thermal expansion of porcelain to
the required extent (with about 12% wt).
• The alloy becomes heat-hardened during the
porcelain firing protocol:
• Slow heating to 980°C
• Hold for 2 mins
• Slow cool
o(repeat for core/dentine/enamel)
• Heat treatment involves an order hardening
mechanism (FePt & PtAu3).
• The effects of order hardening may be reversed by
heating to 900°C and quenching
3. MEDIUM-CONTENT GOLD
CASTING ALLOYS
• These represent a range of alloys which parallel the
high-content gold systems (discussed above), but
with a total gold and platinum group metal content
of between 25% and 75% (wt).
• A similar classification, Types I-IV, is relevant and
some materials are suitable for heat treatment.
• The reduced content of noble metals may make
such materials more prone to tarnish & corrosion
and the biocompatibility of materials should be
reported.
COBALT-CHROMIUM CASTING ALLOYS
• These alloys are prone to oxidation on melting
and the castings produced are rather hard and
brittle.
• The high melting temperature requires the use of a
phosphate-bonded investment and the
shrinkage, on cooling (1.9% linear), is such that
dimensional accuracy is difficult to achieve.
• Thus, the alloys are unsuitable for precision
castings, such as crown & bridge components, and
over-oxidation, on heating, also makes them
unsuitable for the fusion of porcelain to surface.
• However, the materials are corrosion resistant and
well tolerated in the mouth.
• Typical application of Co-Cr-Mo alloys in partial
dentures.
• Co-Cr alloys are essentially metastable face-
centered cubic (fcc) systems with carbides present
at the grain boundaries and interdendritically.
• The melting range (1250-1450’C) is beyond the
capacity of the gas-air torch, and these alloys are
either melted by (i) flameless electromagnetic
induction or by (ii) oxyacetylene flame.
• Quenching the casting would result in a fine
precipitate of carbides forming within the grains
and would yield an inconveniently hard surface.
• Besides, slow cooling results in the preferential
deposition of carbides at the grain boundaries,
where a continuous layer may be formed.This results
in a brittle casting.
• A compromise is bench-cooling which results in
elements of both effects being present but with
discontinuous carbide formation at grain boundaries.
• The value of Young’s Modulus for these alloys is
approxximately three times that of the gold alloys.
• This increased rigidity is useful in that thinner
sections will feature the same load-deflection
relationship as for the gold alloys (e.g., connectors of
a partial denture) but it is unfortunate that the effect
is accompanied by a reduced elastic limit (530 Mpa)
• The increased modulus, in association with the
reduced elastic limit, makes the design of features
such as clasps more problematic..
• The difficulty is that the arms of a clasp must be
displaced elastically, which requires a stress less than
the elastic limit.
• Because of the increased modulus for Co-Cr, a
greater stress is required for a given deflection
(strain), and this stress may exceed the elastic limit
of the material.
NICKEL-CHROMIUM CASTING ALLOYS
• The Ni-Cr alloys were investigated for dental
applications in an attempt to overcome some of the
limitations of cast Co-Cr, ie the minimal ductility,
high cooling shrinkage, and tendency towards over-
oxidation.

Industrially, these alloys are


known as NIMONICS and
application in jet-engine
technology.
generalised composition for
the dental casting alloys
• with other minor components such as
Al, Ti, Co (all hardening agents), and
B & Si (deoxidisers on melting).
• The Be (beryllium) -containing alloys present a toxic
hazard in the laboratory, through the possible
inhalation of dust from the grinding procedures.
Suitable precautions must be taken.
• Due to the lower melting range, greater accuracy
is possible with Ni-Cr than Co-Cr and crown &
bridge components can be successfully cast.
• Because of the dendritic crystallisation, the Ni-Cr
alloys are extensively used in the 'resin-bonded
bridge’ technique, with grit blasting of the surface
for retention to acid-etched enamel
SILVER-PALLADIUM CASTING ALLOYS
(WHITE GOLD)
• Silver and palladium feature full solid solubility.
• While palladium (Pd) features a strong affinity for
hydrogen gas, it is one of the platinum group
metals and is relatively high melting (MP = 1552°C).
• Silver (Ag) is lower melting (MP = 962°C), making it
more suitable as the basis of a dental casting alloy,
but tarnishes easily in the presence of hydrogen
sulphide.
• Silver can be protected from tarnishing through the
addition of palladium, the degree of protection
determined by the quantity of palladium present.
• The Ag-Pd dental casting alloys (also referred to as
White Gold) are, essentially, ternary Ag-Pd-Cu
systems and may be single-phase, or multi-phase
• The alloys can be heat treated to increase surface
hardness (precipitation hardening).
• A generalised composition is as follows:
• The materials will accept porcelain but it should
be borne in mind that the affinity of porcelain for
Ag is relatively high - an effect which may impart a
greenish tint to the ceramic.
• A suitable coating material for the alloy may be
required.
• The alloys become precipitation = (age) hardened
during the porcelain firing cycle.
HIGH-CONTENT PALLADIUM
CASTING ALLOYS
• Recently, alloys featuring a high palladium content
have been developed for the porcelain fused to
metal technique.
• Palladium content is usually in the range 75-78%
(wt) and the alloys based on one of the ternary
systems; Pd-Cu-Ga, Pd-Co-Ga or Pd-Ag-Sn.
• The materials should be melted using an induction
technique and in an inert gas atmosphere.
WROUGHT ALLOYS
• The effect of cold-work on the mechanical
properties of metal and alloys has already been
outlined (last lecture- metal and alloys).
• Principally affected are the yield strength sY, the
tensile strength sTS, and the surface hardness H,
all of which are increased (at the expense of
ductility).
• Young's Modulus E, is not much changed.
• Thus, alloys which might be deficient in featuring a
relatively low yield strength, as cast (such as Co-Cr-
Mo), might be more acceptable in a work-hardened
condition.
Wires
1. GOLD WIRES
• These may be similar to Type IV dental casting
gold alloys in composition (either with high-
gold content, or medium-gold content

2. COBALT-CHROMIUM-NICKEL WIRES
• These wires contain about
Co, 40%; Cr, 20% Ni, 16%,
together with lesser components, including
carbon.
• Young's modulus is similar to that of the Ni-Cr
casting alloys.
3. STAINLESS STEEL WIRES
• Austenitic stainless steel 18-8 is commonly used
in orthodontic devices.
• Care must be taken is soldering such wires to
avoid loss of corrosion resistance

4. NICKEL-TITANIUM WIRES
• These wires are based on the
intermetallic NiTi (Nitinol, Titanal, Titanol) and
feature a shape-memory effect, hence shape
memory alloys (SMA).
The shape-memory effect is
not of major clinical significance
a 'parent' shape is established at about 400oC and
the metal cooled.
On further deformation at low temperature, the
material reverts to its 'parent' shape on heating to its
transition temperature Tg which can take a value in
the range 0°C to about 100°C, depending on the
precise alloy composition.
SWAGING
• Swaging is the adaptation of sheet metal to a die
under pressure.
• The process is accompanied by work hardening.
• The process may be used for the production of a
denture base in sheet stainless steel.

A sand mould is formed from a cast of the palate


subsequently poured in zinc,  to form die,
further pouring of zinc onto the fitting surface of
the die,  to form the counter-die.
The sheet 18-8 stainless steel is sandwiched
between die & counter-die in a hydraulic press
and pressure applied quickly.
Stainless steel ribbon is then spot-welded onto
the denture base to retain the PMMA gumwork
which is processed normally.

• A denture base in stainless steel offers a number of


advantages when compared with PMMA
ohigh rigidity in thin section,
ohigh impact resistance,
ono possible monomer toxicity,
ogood thermal conductivity
• A difficulty with the process is that 18-8 austenitic
stainless steel work-hardens quickly and an
intermediate annealing process may be required to
achieve adequate fit to the die (anneal by heating to
1050°C for 2 mins, followed by rapid cooling).
Appendix 1
GOLD
• Pure gold is the most ductile and malleable of all
metals, it ranks much lower strength.

GOLD SOLUBILITY
• Gold is not soluble in sulfuric acid, nitric, or
hydrochloric acids.
• It dissolves in combinations of nitric and
hydrochloric acids.
• It also dissolved by a few other chemicals, such as
potassium cyanide and solutions is nearly of
bromide or chlorine.
APPLICATION
Alloys
• mixture of gold + noble metals platinum, palladium
or silver + copper + zinc.
• easy for the dentist to manipulate but is strong,
stiff, durable & resistant to tarnish & corrosion.
• Alloys are used for inlays, crowns and bridges.
Gold
 pure gold metal (in the form of foil, powder or thin
flake like crystals known as 'mat gold'),
 wrought alloys (in the form of wires and plates),
 casting alloys and gold alloy solders.
GOLD FOR SOLDERING
•Soldering is a particularly important dental
technique for the connection of individual
components.
•In metallurgy terms, solder refers to alloys melting
below 425°C in contrast to alloys for brazing which
melt above this temperature.
•In dentistry, the generic term soldering is used to
cover all such operations.
•The dental solder alloys are generally based on an
alloy of gold, silver and copper with possibly small
additions of tin, zinc or nickel.
GOLD BEATING
• High purity gold is first passed through a series of
rollers and then annealed until the gold is in a
ribbon about 0.0025 mm thick. (= to the thickness
of tissue paper)
• The ribbon is cut into small pieces.
• Each piece is placed between two sheets of paper,
which are the placed one over the other to form a
packet.
• The packet may contain 200-250 small piece of
gold ribbon.
• The packet is beaten by a hammer until desired
thickness is obtained usually 0.00064 mm.
CONTENT
• The gold content of the alloy will vary according to
the precise application.
• A typical crown and bridge alloy may contain 62-78
per cent gold, with silver, platinum and palladium
added to make at least 75 per cent noble metals,
plus copper and zinc.
EFFECTS OF ALLOY COMPONENT

(1) Gold (Au) → Corrosion resistance


(2) Copper (Cu) →Hardness
(3) Silver (Ag) → Counteract orange color of copper
(4) Palladium (Pd) → Increase MP and hardness
(5) Platinum (Pt) → Increase MP
(6) Zinc (Zn) →Prevent oxidation during melting (O2
getter)

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