INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH METHODS
Lesson 1
Introduction

• Research is a key to progress. There can be no progress

without research in almost if not all human endeavors. In
government, in education, in trade and commerce, and in
all types and kinds of industries, research is vital and
essential. Therefore, the methods and techniques must
be taught and learned in graduate as well as in
undergraduate educational work. This is imperative
because the people who have gone through the college
and graduate levels of education are the ones who are
most expected to undertake research activities.
Definitions of Research

• Research is defined as a careful, critical,

disciplined inquiry, varying in techniques and
methods according to the nature and conditions of
the problem identified, directed toward the
clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem
(Good, 1959).
• Research is a systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic or problem. After a
careful, systematic search for pertinent information
or data on a specific topic or problem, and after the
research worker has analyzed and interpreted the
data, he eventually faces another essential task –
that of preparing the research report (Aquino,
1974).
• Research is defined as the process of gathering
data or information to solve a particular or specific
problem in a scientific manner (Manuel and Medel,
1976).
• Research is a systematic study or investigation of
something for the purpose of answering questions
posed by the researcher (Parel, 1966).
• Research in its broadest sense is an attempt to
gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the
collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation
for the purpose of prediction or explanation (Treece
and Treece, 1977).
• Research may be defined as a purposive, systematic and
scientific process of gathering, analyzing, classifying,
organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for the
solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the
discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of
existing knowledge, all for the preservation and
improvement of the quality of human life (Calderon, 1993).
• Best and Kahn (1998) defines research as the
systematic and objective analysis and recording of
controlled observations that may lead to the
development of generalizations, principles, or
theories, resulting in prediction and possibly
ultimate control of events.
• Henson and Soriano (1999) simply put it as the
systematic, controlled and empirical inquiry about a
subject/topic through problem-solving using a
method application of the scientific method to the
study of a problem.
Purposes and Goals of Research

• To discover new facts about known phenomena.

(Alcohol is a known phenomena and research may
turn it into a kind of fuel in quality to gasoline)
• To find answers to problems which are only
partially solved by existing methods and
information. (Cancer is a serious disease which is
only partially cured by present methods but due to
intensive and continuous research, the disease
may be eradicated later on)
• Improve existing techniques and develop new
instruments or products. (This goal envisages the
invention of new gadgets and machines, food
products and others used by man)
• To discover previously unrecognized substances or
elements. (Previously we had 92 elements but due
to research we have now more than 100)
• Discover pathways of action of known substances
and elements. (Due to research we come to know
the dangers from the abusive use of unprescribed
drugs and some poisonous substances)
• To order related, valid generalizations into
systematized science. (The result of this purpose
of research is the science we are now studying in
school)
• To provide basis for decision-making in business,
industry, education, government, and in other
undertakings. One approach in decision-making is
the research approach. (This is basing important
decisions upon the results of research)
• To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity. (Edison was
curious about how a hen hatches her eggs and
made a research on that and he invented the
incubator)
• To find answers to queries by means of scientific
methods. One important question that may be
asked which can be answered only by means of
research is: In what setting is life expectancy
higher, in the city of in the barrio?
• To acquire a better and deeper understanding
about one phenomenon that can be known and
understood better by research is why women are
generally smaller than men.
• To expand or verify existing knowledge. This
usually happens when researchers are replicated.
Newly discovered facts may be found to expand
knowledge gained from a previous research or
verified if the same facts are found.
• To improve educational practices for raising the
quality of school products. Research surveys often
result in the revision of curricula and instructional
innovations to maximize the effectiveness of the
learning process.
• To promote health and prolong life. This purpose
is very obviously demonstrated in pharmaceutical,
nutritional, and medical research.
• To provide man with more of his basic needs –
more and better food, clothing, shelter, etc.
• To make work, travel, and communication faster,
easier, and more comfortable. Due to research
airplanes are made to fly faster, land vehicles to
run faster, labor-saving machines have been
invented and improved, radio and television bring
news immediately to the remote areas, and more
wonders of electricity are making life easier and
better.
Characteristics of Research

• Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and

sequential procedure that leads to the discovery of
truth, solution of a problem, or whatever is aimed to
be discovered.
• Research is controlled. All variables except those
that are tested or being experimented upon are
kept constant (not allowed to change or vary) so
that the changes made on the subjects of the study
can be attributed only to the experimental variable.
This is especially true in an experimental research.
• Research is empirical. All the procedures
employed and the data gathered are perceived in
the same manner by all observers. For instance,
one says that there are five persons in the room, all
agree to the existence of the five persons.
• However, if one says that there are five ghosts in
the room, one or none at all may believe it because
not all people believe in ghosts. Ghosts are
examples of data that are not empirical.
• Research is analytical. There is a critical analysis
of all the data used so that there is no error in their
interpretation.
• Research is objective, unbiased, and logical. All
the findings and conclusions are logically based on
empirical data and no effort is made to alter the
results of the research.
• Research employs hypothesis. This is to guide the
investigation process. In experimental studies,
hypotheses are expressly stated but in descriptive
studies, the specific subproblems or specific
questions serve as the hypotheses and the
hypotheses are tested and not proved.
• Research employs quantitative or statistical
methods. Data are transformed into numerical
measures and are treated statistically to determine
their significance or usefulness.
• Research is original work. Except in historical
research, data are gathered from primary sources
or first-hand sources and not from secondary
sources (usually printed materials such as books,
or theses, etc.)
• Research is done by an expert. The researcher
uses valid and carefully designed procedures, valid
data-gathering instruments, and valid data. He
subjects his data to expert scrutiny.
• Research is accurate investigation, observation
and description. In fact, every research activity
must be done accurately so that the findings will
lead to the formation of scientific generalizations.
All conclusions are based on actual evidence.
• Research is patient and unhurried activity. This is
to ensure accuracy. Research that is hurriedly
done or conducted carelessly due to racing against
time may lead to shaky conclusions and
generalizations.
• Research requires an effort-making capacity. No
research can be conducted without the exertion of
much effort. No one without any effort-making
capacity can conduct a research because research
involves much work and time.
• Research requires courage. Research requires
courage because the researcher oftentimes
undergoes hazards, discomforts and the like. At
times the researcher encounters public and social
disapproval. Also, disagreements with colleagues
may arise.
Classifications of Research

Classification Objectives
1.) According to Goal
a.) Basic or Pure To develop theories or principles without
Research due regard to their immediate applications
To apply the theories or principles to
b.) Applied Research
specific situations
To solve problems that have a direct
application in the setting in which the
c.) Action Research
research is conducted without any
assumptions about the general applications
2.) According to Purpose
a.) Predictive or To determine the future operation of the
Prognostic Research variables under investigation
To provide action or direction based on the
b.) Directive Research
findings of the study
To show interaction of the variables under
c.) Illuminative Research
investigation
3.) According to Levels of Investigation
To study the variables pertinent to a specific
a.) Exploratory Research
situation
To study the relationships of the variables
b.) Descriptive Research
under investigation
To determine the effects of one or more
c.) Experimental Research independent variables on a dependent
variable
4.) According to Type of Analysis
To identify and isolate the components of the
a.) Analytic Research
research situation
To study the total situation first by focusing
b.) Holistic Research on the system and then on its internal
relationships
5.) According to Statistical Content
To discover facts and causes objectively derives from
a.) Quantitative Research
data gathered through the use of statistical tools
To subjectively derived understanding from the
b.) Qualitative Research perspective of observed persons without the use of
statistical techniques
c.) Quantitative-Qualitative To study facts and causes though the use of both
Research quantitative and qualitative methods
6.) According to Choice of Answers to Problems
a.) Developmental Research
b.) Evaluation Research
c.) Experimental Research
To develop a more suitable process or instrument
To identify all possible sources of action and specify
which is most advantageous with the aim of improving
the delivery of services both in terms of how the service
is delivered (the program delivery process) and what the
service delivers (the result or product delivered)
To determine the effects of one or more independent
variables of a dependent variable
7.) According to Developmental Tracking
a.) Longitudinal Research To study the same subjects over a long period of time
To examine different groups of subjects all at the same
b.) Cross-sectional Research
time
8.) According to Time Element
a.) Historical or Archival
To describe what was
Research
b.) Descriptive Research To describe what is
c.) Experimental Research To describe what will be
9.) According to Area or Field of Study
Social Research, Educational Research, Mathematical
Research, Industrial Research, Biological Research,
Agricultural Research, Theological Research, Philosophical
Research, Business Research, etc.
Scientific Method of Research

• 1.) Defining the problem where meaningful

questions needing solutions are identified and
made specific.
• 2.) Stating the hypotheses where tentative
explanations of the problem are drawn.
• 3.) Deductive reasoning where indicators of the
truth of the hypotheses are identified
• 4.) Collection and analysis of data, where the
hypotheses are tested by collecting and analyzing
relevant data through various methods.
• 5.) Confirming or rejecting the hypotheses, where
decisions are made on whether analyzed data
support the hypotheses, or otherwise.
Some Hindrances to Scientific Inquiry
(Errors in Personal Judgment)

• Tradition
• Authority
• Inaccurate Observation
• Overgeneralization
• Selective Observation
• Made-up Information
• Illogical Reasoning
• Ego-involvement in Understanding
• Mystification
• To err is Human
• Dogmatism
Ethics in Research

• The Principle of Voluntary Participation

• The Principle of Informed Consent
• The Principle of No Risk of Harm
• The Principle of Privacy
• The Principle of Equality of Service
• The Principle of No Deception
• The Principle of Knowledge of Outcome