Any material that can be

burned to release thermal

energy is called a fuel.
Fuels: hydrogen and carbon.
(hydrocarbon fuels/CnHm)
Hydrocarbon fuels exist in
all phases: coal, gasoline,
and natural gas
Gasoline  Oktana, C8H18
Diesel  Dodekana, C12H26
Methane, CH4
Methyl alcohol(metanol), CH3OH
Combustion: a chemical reaction during which a
fuel is oxidized and a large quantity of energy is
released
The fuel must be brought above its ignition temperature
to start the combustion. The minimum ignition
temperatures in atmospheric air approximately: 260°C for
gasoline, 400°C for carbon, 580°C for hydrogen,
610°C for carbon monoxide, and 630°C for methane

Air–fuel ratio (AF): ratio of the mass of air to the mass

of fuel for a combustion process
 THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL
COMBUSTION PROCESSES

A combustion process is complete if all the carbon in

the fuel burns to CO2, all the hydrogen burns to H2O,
and all the sulfur (if any) burns to SO2. The combustion
process is incomplete if the combustion products
contain any unburned fuel or components such as C, H2,
CO, or OH (caused insufficient oxygen).
Stoichiometric or theoretical air:
the minimum amount of air needed for the
complete combustion of a fuel, referred to as the
chemically correct amount of air, or 100 percent
theoretical air.
The ideal combustion process during which a fuel
is burned completely with theoretical air is called
stoichiometric or theoretical combustion
Example:

• no unburned fuel
• no free oxygen in products
Excess air : the amount of air in excess of the
stoichiometric amount (% excess air or
% theoretical air).
Example: 50% excess air = 150% theoretical air)
Deficiency of air: amounts of air less than the
stoichiometric amount (% deficiency of air).
Ex: 90% theoretical air = 10% deficiency of air
 ORSAT GAS ANALYZER
Alat yang digunakan untuk menganalisa komposisi gas
pembakaran.
Sampel didinginkan pada
tekanan dan temperatur
ruangan  volume diukur.

Tdp  Tsat @ Pv
When the process involves chemical reactions,
however, the composition of the system at the
end of a process is no longer the same as that at
the beginning of the process. Necessary to have a
common reference state for all substances.
The chosen reference state is 25°C (77°F) and 1
atm, which is known as the standard reference
state. Property values at the standard
reference state are indicated by a superscript
(°) (such as h° and u°).
The ideal-gas enthalpy of N2 at 500 K relative
to the standard reference state, for example, is
Enthalpy of reaction,hR: the difference between the
enthalpy of the products at a specified state and the
enthalpy of the reactants at the same state for a complete
reaction.
Enthalpy of combustion, hC: the amount of heat
released during a steady-flow combustion process when 1
kmol (or 1 kg) of fuel is burned completely at a specified
temperature and pressure
The enthalpy of combustion is not of much use when the
combustion is incomplete → enthalpy of formation
enthalpy of a substance at a specified state due to its
chemical composition.
The enthalpy of formation of all stable elements (such as
O2, N2, H2, and C) = 0 at the standard reference state of
25°C and 1 atm ( = 0 ). (Tabel A.26)

Negative enthalpy of
formation : heat is
released.
A positive value indicates
heat is absorbed
Heating value of the fuel: the amount of heat released when a
fuel is burned completely in a steady-flow process and the
products are returned to the state of the reactants. The heating
value of a fuel = absolute value of the enthalpy of combustion of
the fuel.

Higher heating value (HHV): H2O

(liquid)
Lower heating value (LHV): H2O
(vapor)

hfg = the enthalpy of vaporization of

water at the specified temperature
Steady-flow combustion process, No Qin,
W=∆Ek= ∆Ep≈0
Closed Systems

Chemically reacting closed system:

Adiabatic flame or adiabatic combustion
temperature: the temperature of the products
reaches a maximum, no heat loss to the
surroundings (Q = 0),
The adiabatic flame temperature of a steady-
flow combustion process: Q = 0 and W = 0