Quality of Power Supply:

Concepts, Technology &

Regulations

Prof S.N. Singh

Department of Electrical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
(Email: snsingh@iitk.ac.in)
 Electric Power
 Electricity must be
 Economical
 Secure
 Stable
 Reliable
 Good quality
 Power Quality is defined as "any power
problem manifested in voltage, current,
and/or frequency deviations that results in
the failure and/or mal-operation of end
user’s equipment.
 Quality of Supply?
Refers to: Supply reliability + Voltage Quality
• Supply Reliability: relates to the availability of
power at given point of system (continuity).
• Voltage Quality: relates to the purity of the
characteristics of the voltage waveform including
the absolute voltage level and frequency.
QoS= “Uninterrupted supply of power with
sinusoidal voltage and current waveform at
acceptable frequency and voltage magnitude.”

Quality of Service = Quality of Supply +

Customer relations
 Voltage or Power Quality

• Due to Disturbances e.g. transients (switching/

lightning), faults etc. (resulting in voltage sag,
swell, oscillatory and impulsive waveform,
interruption)
• Due to Steady State Variations e.g. nonlinear
characteristics of loads, furnace/induction
heating loads, switching of converters etc.
(resulting in harmonics, notching and noise).
 Effects of Poor Power Quality
Possible effects of poor power quality are:
Maloperation (of control devices, mains signaling
systems and protective relays)
More loss (in electrical system)
Fast aging of equipments.
Loss of production
 Radio, TV and telephone interference
Failure of equipments
 Why PQ becomes important ?
• The widespread use of sensitive microprocessor-based
controls and power electronics devices for higher
efficiency, pf improvements, adjustable speed drives etc.
• Huge economic losses if equipment fails or
malfunctions;
• The proliferation of large computer systems into many
businesses and commercial facilities;
• The development of power electronics equipment for
improving system stability, operation, and efficiency
(these devices are a major source of bad power quality
and are themselves vulnerable to such quality of power);
 Continued…..
• Deregulation of power industry, which gives
customers the right to demand higher quality of
power;

• There are some indications that information about the

PQ itself will become a valuable commodity after
deregulation subject to negotiations, pricing,
ownership, etc

• The complex interconnection of systems, resulting in

more severe consequences if any one component fails;
 PQ Disturbances and their causes

PQ Disturbances Main causes of poor PQ

 Transients Nonlinear loads
 Short Duration Voltage Variations Adjustable-speed drives
 Long Duration Voltage Variations Traction drives
 Interruptions  Start of large motor loads
 Waveform Distortion  Arc furnaces
 Voltage Fluctuation (flicker) Intermittent loads transients
 Frequency Variation  Lightning
 Harmonics Switching, transients
Faults
 Some typical PQ disturbances
Voltage sags
Major causes: faults, starting of
large loads, and
Major consequences: shorts,
accelerated aging, loss of data or
stability, process interrupt, etc.
Voltage Sag
Lightning transients
Capacitor switching transients
Major causes: a power factor
correction method
Major consequences: insulation
breakdown or sparkover,
semiconductor device damage,
shorts, accelerated aging, loss of
data or stability
Capacitor Switching
High impedance faults
Harmonics
Major causes: power
electronic equipment, arcing,
transformer saturation
Major consequences:
equipment overheating, high
voltage/current, protective
device operations
Harmonics

Major causes: lightning strikes
Major consequences: insulation
breakdown or sparkover,
semiconductor device damage,
shorts, accelerated aging, loss of data
Lightning Strike
or stability
(One of the most difficult power system
protection problems)
Major causes: fallen conductors, trees (fail
to establish a permanent return path)
Major consequences: fire, threats to
High Impedance Fault (RMS)
personal safety
 IEEE Std 1159-1995
Typical Typical voltage
Categories spectral Typical mag.
content duration

Transients
-Impulsive -Nanosecond 5nsecrise < 50 nsec 50 nsec
-Microsecond 1 µsec rise -1 msec
-Millisecond 0.1 msec rise > 1msec
-Oscillatory - Low frequency < 5kHz 0.3 -50 msec 0-4pu
- Medium frequency 5 -500 kHz 20 µsec 0-8pu
- High frequency 0.5 -5 MHz 5 µsec 0-4pu

Short duration variations

-Instantaneous
- Interruption 0.5 -30 cycles < 0.1 pu
- Sag (dip) 0.5 -30 cycles 0.1 -0.9 pu
- Swell 0.5 -30 cycles 1.1 -1.8 pu
- Momentary
- Interruption 30 cycles -3 sec < 0.1 pu
- Sag (dip) 30 cycles -3 sec 0.1 -0.9 pu
-Swell 30 cycles -3 sec 1.1 -1.4 pu
 Continued….

Temporary
-Interruption 3sec -1min < 0.1 pu
- Sag (dip) 3sec -1min 0.1 -0.9 pu
- Swell 3sec -1min 1.1 -1.2 pu
Long duration variations
- Interruption sustained > 1min 0.0 pu
- Under-voltages > 1min 0.8 -0.9 pu
- Over-voltages > 1min 1.1 -1.2 pu
Voltage unbalance Steady state 0.5 -2 %

Wave distortion
dc offset
0 -100th harmonic Steady state 0-0.1%
Harmonics
Steady state 0 -20 %
Inter-harmonics
0-6 kHz Steady state 0-2%
Notching
Broadband Steady state
Noise
Steady state 0.1 %
Voltage fluctuations < 25 Hz Intermittent 0.1-7%
Power frequency
< 10 sec
variations
 Harmonics
• It is a steady state periodic phenomenon that
produces continuous distortion in voltage and
current waveform.
• It is normally caused by saturable devices, power
electronics devices and non linear consumer loads.
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure of
harmonic voltage/current. The THD in a voltage
waveform is defined as


V
n2
n
2

THD 
V1
where, Vn is the magnitude of nth harmonic voltage
and V1 is the magnitude of fundamental voltage.
 Effect of harmonics on waveform

180 Out
of Phase

In
Phase

The above is an integer harmonic. Depending on the type of

loads, subharmonics or interharmonics are also generated.
 Spectrum of a Typical Distorted Voltage
Waveform
(a) Distorted Waveform (b) Spectrum of (a)
1.5

THD= 43.83%
0.8

Harmonics Magnitudes (pu)

0.5
Voltage (pu)

0.6
0
Fundamental

0.4
-0.5

-1 0.2

-1.5 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time(s) Harmonics Number
• Although easy to measure, the THD does not show
the interference impact of the signal.
• Total Demand Distortion (TDD) is a measure of the
THD taking into account the circuit rating. As the
circuit rating versus load current rises, TDD drops
TDD = THD x (Fundamental load current/circuit
rating)
 What do harmonics do?
• Harmonics are carried through the system from
the source and can nearly double the amount of
current on the neutral conductor in three phase
four wire distribution systems.
• Distorted currents from harmonic-producing
loads also distort the voltage, which appear to
other end users on the system.
• Overall electrical system performance and power
quality is affected by the introduction of
harmonics, such as
• Overheating of Transformers, Capacitors and Motors
• Mal-operation Relays and Circuit Breakers
• Communication Interference Problems
• Unreliable Operation of Electronic Equipment
• Computer (PC/CPU) data errors / data loss
Order of typical harmonics generated
by non-linear loads?
Power Quality Related Standards of the IEEE
(Recommended Practices)

IEEE 446 - Emergency and Standby Power

IEEE 519 - Harmonic Control
IEEE 1001 - Interface with Dispersed Generation
IEEE 1100 - Power and Grounding Electronics
IEEE 1159 - Monitoring Power Quality
IEEE 1250 - Service to Critical Loads
IEEE 1346 - System Compatibility in Industrial
Environments
IEEE 1366 - Electric Utility Reliability Indices
 Harmonic Voltage Limit as per IEEE-519
(utilities’ responsibility)
Bus Voltage Maximum Maximum
Individual THD (%)
Harmonic
Component (%)
69 kV and below 3.0% 5.0%

115 kV to 161 kV 1.5% 2.5%

Above 161 kV 1.0% 1.5%

 Harmonic Current Limit as per IEEE-519
(customers’ responsibility)
SCR h<11 11<h<17 17<h<23 23<h<35 35<h TDD
=Isc/IL
<20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0

20 -50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0

50 -100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0

100 -1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0

>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0

Values shown are in % of “average maximum load current”

SCR = short circuit ratio (short circuit current at point of common
coupling divided by customer average maximum load current)
TDD = Total Demand Distortion (uses maximum load current as
the base, rather than the fundamental current)
 Indian standards on harmonic
limits
CBIP Report No. 251
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THDV) = 9% in 0.4
< U < 45 kV
APERC
• The cumulative (THDv) at the Point of
Commencement of Supply for each consumer
connected at 33kV shall be limited to 8% (as
per Grid Code)
• The cumulative (THDv) at the Point of
Commencement of Supply for each consumer
connected at 11kV shall be limited to 8% (as
per Grid Code)
 IEC Standards for Harmonic Distortion Levels
• Customer/System Limits
– IEEE 519-1992
– IEC 1000-2-2 (Compatibility Levels)
– IEC 1000-3-6
– G5/3 (United Kingdom)
• Equipment Limits
– IEC 1000-3-2 (Formerly IEC 555-2) up to 16 amps
– IEC 1000-3-4 16-75 amps
• How to Measure Harmonics
– IEC 1000-4-7

*IEC 1000-3-3, IEC 1000-3-5 specifies limits for unbalance as

– LV-MV: 2%
– HV: 1%
* Also specifies flicker limits
 Power Acceptability Curve

• Quantify acceptability of power supply as a

function of voltage imbalance magnitude and its
duration (based on energy concept).
• Originally developed by Computer Business
Equipment Manufacturers (CBEMA) to define
capability limit of computers.
• It has become standard for all types of electrical
equipments and power system.
• Other standard is by Information Technology
Industry Council (ITIC).
 Computer Business Equipment
Manufacturing Association (CBEMA) curve
250

200

O VERVO LT AG E CO NDIT IO NS

150
PERCENT CHANGE IN BUS VOLTAGE

0.5 CYCLE
100

50

ACCEPT ABLE RATED

0
POWER VOLTAGE
8.33 ms

-50

UNDERVO LT AG E CO NDIT IO NS

-100
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

TIME IN SECONDS
 Information Technology Industry
Council (ITIC) Curve
250

200

OVERVOLTAGE CONDITIONS

150
PERCENT CHANGE IN BUS VOLTAGE

0.5 CYCLE
100

50

+
-- 10%
ACCEPT ABLE RATED
0
POW ER VOLTAGE
8.33 ms

-50

UNDERVOLTAGE CONDITIONS

-100
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

TIME IN SECONDS
 Service reliability indicators
Reliability of supply can be defined as the ability of
the power system to deliver electrical power to a
given consumer over a specified period of time.

For a given customer, the reliability of supply can

usually be assessed by two parameters:
–The number of Interruption during a year
–The average duration of an interruption
Indicators based on system performance
• SAIDI: System Average Interruption Duration Index
(Minutes/ customer . year)

 Duartion of all Customers interruptions

Total no. of Customers
• SAIFI: System Average Interruption Frequency Index
(Interruptions/ customer. year)
Total annual no. of interruptions
Total no. of Customers
• ASAI: Average Service Availability Index (% or pu)
( No.of Customers  8760 )   Duartion of all Customers interruptions
Total no. of Customers  8760
• ASAI: Average Service Unavailability Index =1-ASAI
• AENS: Average Energy Not Supplied (kWh/customer.year)
Energy Not Supplied

Number of Customers
• Indicators related to individual customer
• CAIDI: Customer Average Interruption Duration Index
Number (Minutes/ year)


 Duartion of all Customers interruptions
Total no. of Interruptions
• CAIFI: Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index
Number
Total annual no. of interruptions

No. of Customers affected
• CTAIDI: Customer Total Average Interruption Duration Index
(Minutes/ year)


 Duartion of all Customers interruptions
Total no. of Customers affected
• MICIF: Maximum Individual Customer Interruption Frequency
(occurrences /year)
= max. interruptions experienced by any customer during
the period

• MICID: Maximum Individual Customer Interruption Duration

(occurrences /year)
= max. total interruptions time experienced by any
customer during the period
• MAIFI : Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index
relates to momentary interruptions of < 3 . 5 min duration
 Reliability index monitoring in India
Reliability monitoring is based on the following parameters:
• No. of outages of 11 kV feeders.
• Duration of outages of 11 kV feeders.

Feeder Reliability
A B
 100
A
where A = No of feeders x24x60xNo of days in a month
B = Outage duration in minutes
 State Capital/Urban Feeder Reliability
State Agglomeration 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07
ANDHRA PRADESH Hyderabad 99.5 99.47 99.38
ANDHRA PRADESH Vishakhapatnam 99.78 99.87 99.43
ANDHRA PRADESH Vijaywada 99.46 99.64 99.7
DELHI Delhi(NDPL Area) 99.43 99.85 99.96
DELHI Delhi(East & Central) 98.8 99.11 99.58
DELHI Delhi(West & South) 98.88 99.06 99.62
GUJARAT Ahmedabad 99.91 99.92 99.92
GUJARAT Surat 99.79 99.90 99.34
KERALA Thiruvananthapuram 99.56 99.95 99.93
KERALA Kochi 98.78 99.18 99.14
MAHARASHTRA Mumbai (Suburbs) 99.99 99.99 99.99
PUNJAB Amritsar 99.51 97.15 97.63
PUNJAB Ludhiana 99.43 99.35 99.17
TAMIL NADU Chennai 99.8 99.74 99.78
TAMIL NADU Coimbatore 99.32 99.18 99.05
TAMIL NADU Trichy 99.71 99.78 99.85
TAMIL NADU Virudhachalam 99.59 99.41 99.75
WEST BENGAL Kolkata 99.96 99.88 99.74
 State Capital/Urban Outage duration per feeder
Agglomeration (hh:mm)
State 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07
ANDHRA PRADESH Hyderabad 43:37 46:13 53:60
ANDHRA PRADESH Anantapur 11:46 76:44 393:54
ANDHRA PRADESH Vishakhapatnam 19:26 11:08 49:58
ANDHRA PRADESH Vijaywada 47:28 31:21 26:04
DELHI Delhi(NDPL Area) 49:33 13:34 03:54
DELHI Delhi(East & Central) 105:14 77:40 37:05
DELHI Delhi(West & South) 98:07 82:31 33:29
GUJARAT Ahmedabad 08:00 07:07 07:14
GUJARAT Surat 18:17 09:00 57:58
KERALA Thiruvananthapuram 38:22 04:15 06:11
KERALA Kochi 106:34 71:55 75:19
MAHARASHTRA Mumbai (Suburbs) 01:06 01:16 01:01
PUNJAB Amritsar 43:02 249:32 207:24
PUNJAB Ludhiana 50:04 57:16 72:50
TAMIL NADU Chennai 17:35 23:09 18:54
TAMIL NADU Erode 11:55 49:15 76:40
WEST BENGAL Kolkata 03:26 10:36 22:40
 State Capital/Urban No of Outages per feeder
State Agglomeration 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07
ANDHRA PRADESH Hyderabad 117 143 134
ANDHRA PRADESH Vishakhapatnam 1 9 51
ANDHRA PRADESH Vijaywada 125 97 87
DELHI Delhi(NDPL Area) 26 10 4
DELHI Delhi(East & Central) 68 77 38
DELHI Delhi(West & South) 60 76 34
GUJARAT Ahmedabad 4 4 4
GUJARAT Surat 8 4 6
KERALA Thiruvananthapuram 76 12 11
KERALA Kochi 253 229 222
MAHARASHTRA Mumbai (Suburbs) 3 4 3
PUNJAB Amritsar 93 260 171
PUNJAB Ludhiana 40 41 49
TAMIL NADU Chennai 96 105 82
TAMIL NADU Coimbatore 86 105 123
TAMIL NADU Trichy 34 37 29
TAMIL NADU Virudhachalam 33 51 36
WEST BENGAL Kolkata 1 2 31
 Monitoring and Mitigation of PQ
Problems
• Requires continuous and extensive monitoring
of different power system quantities.
• Detection and identification of power quality
related disturbances and categorizing them.
• Analysis of the identified problems to their
probable causes.
• Prevention and corrections of the probable
causes either automatically or manually.
• Mitigation devices include Active Filters,
DSTATCOM, DVR, UPQC.
 Role of Regulators

• Set general quality targets at different levels

• Comparison of Standards
• Monitor quality levels
• Penalties for not respecting quality standards
• Financial compensation scheme
• Dispute settlement procedures
• Quality of supply in changing environment
 Conclusions
• Quality of Supply is an important issue to be
addressed by utilities as well as customers at
transmission & distribution levels.
• Indigenous QoS standards should be developed based
on the techno-economic analysis.
• To improve the QoS, network and generation
capabilities must be enhanced.
• Power quality problems have been classified in
different forms. Its analysis and classification is very
important.
• Proper monitoring of PQ signals, its analysis to
identify the type of the PQ problem, its impact analysis
and installing different types of mitigation devices in
the system are the main steps in addressing the PQ
problems.
Thank
You .. ?