Prinsip &

Karaktesitik
Airtanah

Pertemuan ke -2
Aliran
Sifat-sifat hidraulik yang
penting :
porositas,
permeabilitas,
transmisivitas
 Storativitas
Pores, Porosity and Permeability
Pores: The spaces between particles
within geological material (rock or
sediment) occupied by water and/or air.

Porosity: is defined as the

ratio of the volume of
voids to the volume of
aquifer material. It refers
to the degree to which the
aquifer material possesses
pores or cavities which
contain air or water.

Permeability: The capacity of a porous rock, sediment, or soil to

transmit ground water. It is a measure of the inter-connectedness of
a material's pore spaces and the relative ease of fluid flow under
unequal pressure.
• Porosity = prosentase volume rongga/pori dalam. Hal
menunjukkan jumlah air yang di kandung batuan.

𝑉𝑣
𝑛= 𝑥 100 %
𝑉
7
Relationship between
geology and groundwater

• The type of rock formation will suggest the magnitude of water

yield to be expected.

• It is the perviousness or permeability and not porosity which is

significant in water yielding capacity of rocks.

• Igneous rocks have a porosity of 1% and may yield all water while
some clays have a pososity as high as 50% but are practically
impervious.

• Porosity = f (grainsize, shape, grading, sorting, amount and

distribution of cementing materials)

• Permeability = f (interconnectedness, fissures, joints, bedding

planes, faults, shear zones and cleavages, vesicles )
9
Tabel 1. Nilai porositas dan perkiraan jenis Litologi (Freeze & Cherry, 1979)

Jenis Batuan n (%)

Endapan Belum terkompaksi
• Kerikil
• Pasir 25 - 40
• Lanau 25 - 50
• Lempung 35 - 50
Batuan 40 - 70
• Batugamping Karst 05 - 50
• Batupasir 05 - 30
• Batugamping, dolomit 00 - 20
• Serpih 00 - 10
• Batuan kristalin terkekarkan 00 - 10
• Batuan Kristalin 00 - 05
 Tabel 2.1. Porositas batuan menurut Todd ( 1959)

Porositas Porositas
No Material No Material
(%) (%)
1. Tanah (soil) 50 - 60 7. Kerikil 30 - 40
2. Lempung 45 - 55 8. Kerikil dan pasir 20 - 35
3. Silt 40 - 50 9. Batupasir 10 - 20
4. Pasir sedang & kasar 35 – 40 10. Shale 1 - 10
5. Pasir seragam 30 - 40 11. Batugamping 1 - 10
6. Pasir halus & sedang 30 - 35

Tabel 2.2. Porositas batuan menurut Walton

No. Material Kesarangan No. Material Kesarangan

(%) (%)
1. Lempung 45 – 55 5. Batupasir 10 – 20
2. Pasir 35 – 40 6. Shale 1 – 10
3. Kerikil 30 – 40 7. Batugamping 1 – 10
4. Pasir dan kerikil 20 – 35
 Tabel 3-3. Macam-macam Batuan Dengan Tipe
Porositas (Tood, 1980)
BATUAN ENDAPAN BATUAN BATUAN VULKANIK
TIPE-TIPE
BEKU &
POROSITAS KOMPAK LEPAS KARBONAT KOMPAK LEPAS
UBAHAN
Pasir kerikilan, Zona Zona Batuan
pasir pelapukan pelapukan vulkanik
lempungan, dari granit, basalt lepas,
Antar butiran - -
lempung gneis blok -
pasiran debu
vulkanik
Breksi Batugamping Breksi
Antar butiran konglomerat oolitik vulkanik,
- - -
dan retakan batupasir tuff,
batuapung
Batugamping, Granit, Basalt,
Dolomit gneiss andesit,
Retakan - - Batugamping, gabro, riolit -
dolomit kwarsit,
diorit, sekis
Factors affecting porosity :

1. Grain size 3. Sorting,

2. Shapes, 4. Cementation
– Well-rounded coarse-grained
sediments usually have higher
porosity than fine-grained sediments,
because the grains do not fit together
well.

– Poorly sorted sediments usually have

Cement
lower porosity because the fine-
grained fragments tend to fill in the
open space

– In igneous and metamorphic rocks porosity

is usually low because the minerals tend to
be intergrown, leaving little free space.
Highly fractured igneous and metamorphic
rocks, however, could have high porosity
Hubungan antara tekstur dengan porositas, (a). pemilahan baik, maka porositas tinggi, (b).
pemilahan jelek, maka porositas rendah, (c). pemilahan baik dengan butiran berpori, porositas
sangat tinggi, (d). pemilahan baik, tetapi ruangnya diisi masa material (sementasi), porositas
berkurang, (e). adanya lubang pelarutan, porositas bertambah, (f). adanya retakan, porositas
bertambah.
Jenis – jenis porositas :

1. Berdasarkan kejadiannya
 Porositas primer (Kesarangan asli)
 Porositas sekunder (Kesarangan tidak asli)
2. Berdasarkan ukuran pori
 Porositas kapiler
 Porositas sub-kapiler
 Porositas super kapiler
3. Ditinjau dari hubungan lubang-lubangnya
 Saling berhubungan (communicating interstices)
 Terisolasi (isolated interstices)
Primary vs secondary porosity

Primary porosity is the porosity that

exists between individual grains in the
rock.

Secondary porosity is the porosity that

results from fracturing, dissolution, and
separation of the rock after its formation.
Measurement of porosity
 In the lab, porosity is measured by taking a
sample of known volume (V),
 Sample is dried in an oven at 105oC until it
reaches a constant weight (expelling moisture).
 Dried sample is then submerged in a known
volume of water and allowed to remain in a
sealed chamber until saturated
 Volume of voids is equal to original water
volume minus volume in the chamber after
saturated sample is removed. Result is effective
porosity.

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 Total porosity is found from:
n  100[1  (  b / s ]
 bulk density is mass of sample after
dried divided by original sample
volume, particle density is oven-dried
mass divided by volume of solid
determined from water-displacement
test.
 In most rocks and soils, particle density
is about 2.65g/cc (2650kg/m^3).

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 Effective porosity:

– Effective porosity: void spaces that are too small to

admit water molecules are of little interest to
hydrologists. The amount of void space available for
fluid flow is the effective porosity.
– Adalah perbandingan antara volume pori (rongga) yang
saling berhubungan dengan volume total batuan
dinyatakan dalam persen (%) atau disebut dengan
porsitas relatif.
 n = 47.65 % n = 25.95%

(a) Cubic packing of spheres

(b) Rhombohedral packing
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Specific yield
-Water that will drain under the influence of gravity

V Sy = Spesific yield
Sy  v Vv = Voleme void
V Vt = Volume total

Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi besarnya specific yield adalah :

1. Pemadatan (harga Sy berkurang sesuai dengan kedalamannya)
2. Besar butir.
3. Bentuk pembagian pori-pori.
Specific retention
- Water that is retained as a film on rock surfaces and in very small openings.
The physical forces that control specific retention are the same forces involved
in the thickness and moisture content of capillary fringe

Vr
Sr 
Vt

Specific retention (Sr): merupakan perbandingan volume dari tanah atau

batuan yang dapat dialirkan secara gravitasi terhadap volume total batuan.

Sr + Sy = n

dimana : Sy = Spesific yield

Sr = Spesific retention
n = Porositas
28
Q h
qK
A l

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Darcy’s Experimental Law
 Darcy's Experimental Law :
◦ water was passed through a sand column and
the volumetric flow rate Q was measured at the
outlet
◦ The cross-sectional area of the sand column was
known, as was the length of the sand in the
column. During the experiment, Darcy
measured the distance between the water levels
in the two manometers at various flow rates.
He tabulated Q, A, L , and (h1 - h2). He calculated
Q/A and (h1-h2)/L. Q/A is a volumetric flow rate
per unit surface area and is termed specific
discharge.
Q K (h1  h2 ) h
q  K
A l l
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 Darcy's law is stated as:
The velocity of flow is proportional to hydraulic gradient
 Darcy's law is valid for flow through most granular material.
 The law holds as long as flow is laminar.
 In turbulent flow, water particles take more circuitous paths.
Darcy's velocity (q)
 Darcy's q is a "superficial" velocity.
 Actual velocity v is the volumetric flow rate per unit area of
connected pore space.
 Therefore, v = q/𝒏𝒆 = (Ki/𝒏𝒆 ) , where 𝒏𝒆 A is the effective
area of flow and 𝒏𝒆 is the effective porosity. v is the linear
velocity of groundwater. v is always larger than the
superficial velocity and increases with decreasing effective
porosity.

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  q = Ki
 Q = KiA
 v = Ki/ne
 v = q/ne
v and q are both vector quantities
(with magnitude and direction).

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Darcy’s Law, contd.

 Actual velocity (linear gw velocity)

= v = q / ne
ne = effective porosity
 Applicability of Darcy’s Law:
 Laminar flow

–Turbulent flow

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Applications of Darcy’s Law

 Predict groundwater flow to a

well
 Predict rate and direction of
contaminants movement
 Estimate hydraulic head for
different locations in an aquifer

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 wl's are measured with reference to a common datum,
taken arbitrarily at the base of the sample. Absolute
values of wl elevations were of no concern to Darcy
(only the difference between them). We are concerned
here with the actual water level elevations; and what
they mean.

 Manometers:
◦ devices to measure wl elevations in the lab
 Piezometers:
◦ a tube or a pipe to measure wl elevations in field. It's
open at top where measurements are taken, and open at
bottom to facilitate entrance of water.
 A common datum is sea level (elevation zero).

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 Total head is a function of:
◦ pressure head,
◦ elevation head,
◦ velocity head.
 Bernoulli equation.
under conditions of steady flow, total
energy of an incompressible fluid is
constant at all positions along a flow
path in a closed system. This may be
written as

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(total energy contained in the water):
P v2
gz    constant
w 2
g: acceleration due to gravity
z: elevation of base of piezometer
P: pressure exerted by water
column,
 : fluid (water) density
v: velocity

Divide through by g to get (next slide):

38
 P v2
z   constant
g w 2 g

Equation above describes total

energy contained by the fluid.
 1st term: energy of position
 2nd term: energy due to sustained fluid
pressure
 3rd term: energy due to fluid movement

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40
 elevation head, pressure head, velocity head
 velocity head is ignored (slow movement)

P v2
h z  
 Stated simply: g w 2 g
total head (h) is the sum of elevation of the
base of piezometer and length of water
column in piezometer

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42
 gs elevation: 1000 m
 DTW: 25 m
 peizometer: 50 m
 Water density: 1000
kg/m3

Find:
(a) Hydraulic head
(b) Pressure head
(c) pressure

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Solution:

(a) Hydraulic head

(b) Pressure head
(c) pressure

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 Total head = h = hp + z
 Gradient = change in head with
distance
i = dh / dx
 in vector form, gradient may be written as:

h h h
grad h = h= i  j k
x y z

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46
 Equipotential lines = h = 120m

Lines of equal hh h = 100m

h = 80m
 Gradient = contour
interval/horizontal
distance Direction of
groundwater Angle = 90
flow

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48
 B

A E

49
50
 Hydraulic conductivity (K) is constant
of proportionality in Darcy’s
Experimnet
Q h
qK
A l
 HC: ease with which groundwater
flows through the porous medium
 Sands& gravels: high K
 Clay& shales: low K
 Units: [L/T] e.g. m/d, ft/d, gpd/ft2

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52
Example 3.3:

 Groundwater flows through a buried valley

aquifer with a cross sectional area of 1 x
106 ft2,and a length of 2x 104 ft.
 Hydraulic head at gw entry = 1000 ft
 Hydraulic head at gw exit = 960 ft
 Groundwater discharge = 1 x 105 ft3/day
(1) what’s HC of aquifer in ft/day, m/d.
(2) If effective porosity = 0.3, find the linear
groundwater velocity.

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Permeability

– Permeability describes of how easily

water is able to move through rock.
Permeability is related to the
connectedness of the void spaces
and to the grain size of the rock.
 Factors affecting
permeability :
– sifat cairan pori (viskositas),
– rasio ruang antar butir,
– bentuk dan susunan pori batuan atau struktur tanah.
 Parameter permeabilitas

– Konduktivitas Hidraulik, Koefisien Permeabilitas,

Konstanta Transmisi (K), satuan cm/s atau m/s.
Nilai K tidak konstan  media dan fluida
(viskositas & densitas fluida yang tergantung pada
tekanan dan temperatur)
– Permeabilitas Spesifik, Permeabilitas
Intrinsik/Media, Permeabilitas Fisik (k), satuannya
cm2 atau m2.
Nilai k hanya tergantung pada sifat fisik
batuan/tanah
 Hubungan antara k ↔ K
k.ω
K  :
μ
dimana :
Cs Ds2e2 e
k dan n
(1  e) (1  e)

• Dengan :
– K = Konduktivitas hidraulik, L/t
– K = Permeabilitas intrinsik, L2
– w = Berat unit cairan, m/L3
–  = Viscosity, m/L2
– Cs = Diameter karakteristik partikel, L
– e = Angka pori
NB : dalam studi airtanah, paramater permeabilitas
– n = Porositas yang digunakan  konduktifitas hidraulik.
 terima
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