Nervous System

The Human Nervous System consists of the Central

Nervous System (CNS) & the Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
:Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of two main portions:

- Brain
- Spinal cord
Brain
Spinal cord
Reflex
 rapid (and unconscious) response to changes in the
internal or external environment

 Reflex arc
The components of a reflex arc include:
1 - receptor - responds to the stimulus
2 - afferent pathway (sensory neuron)
3 - Central Nervous System - the spinal cord processes
information
4 - efferent pathway (motor neuron)
5- effector - a muscle or gland that receives the impulse
from the motor neuron & carries out the desired response
:Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

:Consists of two main portions

Spinal nerves (31 pair) & their branches -

- Cranial nerves (12 pair) & their

branches
Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System

 1. Somatic
 supplies & receives fibers (neurons) to & from the
skin, skeletal muscles, joints, & tendons
 2. Visceral
 - supplies & receives fibers to & from smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.

 The visceral motor fibers (those supplying

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, & glands)
make up the Autonomic Nervous System.
 The ANS has two divisions:
 Parasympathetic division - important
for control of 'normal' body functions, e.g.,
normal operation of digestive system

 Sympathetic division - also called the

'fight or flight' division; important in
helping us cope with stress
:Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

 1 - Entirely motor (consisting of the visceral efferent

fibers)

 2 - Has two divisions: sympathetic & parasympathetic

 sympathetic neurons leave the central nervous

system through spinal nerves in the thoracic &

lumbar regions of the spinal cord
 parasympathetic neurons leave the central

nervous system through cranial nerves plus spinal

nerves in the sacral region of the spinal cord
3 - impulses always travel along two
neurons: preganglionic & postganglionic
 sympathetic division - preganglionic

neurons are relatively short &

postganglionic neurons are relatively long.

 parasypathetic division - preganglionic

neurons are relatively long &
postganglionic neurons are very short
Chemical transmitters - 4

 All autonomic neurons are either cholinergic or

adrenergic
 cholinergic neurons - use acetylcholine as a
neurotransmitter

 includes all preganglionic neurons (both

sympathetic & parasympathetic divisions), all
parasympathetic postganglionic neurons,
plus the sympathetic postganglionic neurons
that supply the sweat glands
 adrenergic neurons - used norepinephrine (also
called noradrenalin) as a neurotransmitter

 includes all postganglionic sympathetic neurons

(except those that go to the sweat glands)
:Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System - 5

 Sympathetic division –
prepares the body for strenuous physical
activity in stressful situations. This
response is often referred to as the 'fight-
or-flight' response because the sympathetic
division prepares the body to fight against
or flee from a threat.
parasympathetic division –
regulates important body functions such as
digestion & 'slows down' the body after a
'fight-or-flight' response ('rest & digest')
Control of Autonomic Nervous System - - 6
primary control center is the hypothalamus
:Anatomy of Neurons
:Functions and Roles of Neuron parts
 Dendrites: (dendron: Greek for "tree") dendrites are the sites
of most neuron-to--neuron communication. Receive information
from another cell and transmit the message to the cell body.

 Axon: long, slender tube the carries information from soma to

terminal button. The message is electrical. Most axons are
covered with myelin.
Myelin sheath: membrane around axon of most neurons,
providing insulation. 70­-80% lipids and 20­-30% proteins. Small
portion of uncoated axon between segments of myelin sheath
are called the nodes of Ranvier.
 Nodes of Ranvier: These are small gaps in
the myelin sheath that allow ions to move in
and out of the cell. This facilitates a process
called saltatory nerve conduction. Signals
jumping from node to node travel hundreds
of times faster than signals traveling along
the surface of the axon. This allows your
brain to communicate with your toes in a few
thousandths of a second.
 Terminal button (also called the synaptic knob):
little knob at the ends of axons or axon terminals that
contain, and release, the transmitter substance.
Within the terminal button, the terminal vesicles
contain the transmitter substance.

Synaptic gap: gap between terminal button of

sending neuron and the membrane of the receiving
cell.
The Nerve Message
 The outside of the nerve membrane has a positive
charge, inside has a negative charge.
 This charge difference is a resting potential. The
voltage potential is -65mV (millivolts) of a cell at rest.
 Resting potential results from differences between
sodium and potassium positively charged ions and
negatively charged ions in the cytoplasm.
 Sodium ions are more concentrated outside the
membrane, while potassium ions are more
concentrated inside the membrane.
 This imbalance is maintained by the active transport
of ions to reset the membrane known as the sodium
potassium pump by actively transporting ions against
their concentration gradients.
 Action potential
An action potential is: a temporary reversal of the electrical
potential along the membrane for a few milliseconds.

 The minimum stimulus needed to achieve an action potential

is called the threshold stimulus.

 The threshold stimulus causes the membrane potential to

become less negative (because a stimulus, no matter how
small, causes a few sodium channels to open and allows
some positively-charged sodium ions to diffuse in).
 Sodium gates and potassium gates open in
the membrane to allow their respective ions
to cross.

 Sodium and potassium ions reverse positions

by passing through membrane protein
channel gates that can be opened or closed
to control ion passage. Sodium crosses first.
At the height of the membrane potential reversal,
potassium channels open to allow potassium ions to
pass to the outside of the membrane. Potassium
crosses second, resulting in changed ionic
distributions, which must be reset by the
continuously running sodium-potassium pump.

Eventually enough potassium ions pass to the outside

to restore the membrane charges to those of the
original resting potential.The cell begins then to
pump the ions back to their original sides of the
membrane
 The action potential begins at one spot on the
membrane, but spreads to adjacent areas of the
membrane along the length of the cell membrane.
 After passage of the action potential, there is a brief
period, the refractory period, during which the
membrane cannot be stimulated. This prevents the
message from being transmitted backward along the
membrane, and a second stimulus will not produce a
second action potential (no matter how strong that
stimulus is)
All-or-None Law

 action potentials occur maximally or

not at all.
 Either the threshold potential is reached
and an action potential occurs, or it isn't
reached and no action potential occurs.
Steps in an Action Potential
1. At rest the outside of the membrane is more positive
than the inside.

2. Sodium moves inside the cell causing an action

potential, the influx of positive sodium ions makes
the inside of the membrane more positive than the
outside.
3. Potassium ions flow out of the cell, restoring the
resting potential net charges.
4. Sodium ions are pumped out of the cell and
potassium ions are pumped into the cell by Na-K
Pump, restoring the original distribution of ions.
Synapses
 The junction between a nerve cell and
another cell is called a synapse.
 The space between two cells is known
as the synaptic cleft.
 The action potential to cross the
synaptic cleft requires the actions of
neurotransmitters.
Receptor Binding:
 Neurotransmitters will bind only to

specific receptors on the postsynaptic

membrane that recognize them.
Excitatory Synapse from the Central Nervous System (TEM x27,360
:Neurotransmitters

Types of neurotransmitters:

 Excitatory - 'excite' or stimulate the postsynaptic

membrane by increasing the permeability of Na.

 Inhibitory - 'inhibit' the transmission of an impulse

by increasing permeability of the membrane to
potassium K.
 One example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter is
gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA; shown below).
Medically, GABA has been used to treat both epilepsy
and hypertension. Another example of an inhibitory
neurotransmitter is beta-endorphin, which results in
decreased pain perception by the CNS.
:Neurotransmitter Criteria
1 - The chemical must be produced within a
neuron.

2 - The chemical must be found within a

neuron.
3 - When a neuron is stimulated (depolarized),
a neuron must release the chemical.
4 - When a chemical is released, it must act on
a post-synaptic receptor and cause a
biological effect.
5 - After a chemical is released, it must be
inactivated. Inactivation can be through a
reuptake mechanism or by an enzyme that
stops the action of the chemical.
6 - If the chemical is applied on the post-
synaptic membrane, it should have the same
effect as when it is released by a neuron.
:Inactivation of Neurotransmitters

1. Diffusion: the neurotransmitter drifts away, out

of the synaptic cleft where it can no longer act on a
receptor.
2. Enzymatic degradation (deactivation): a specific
enzyme changes the structure of the
neurotransmitter so it is not recognized by the
receptor.
3. Glial cells: astrocytes remove
neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft.
4. Reuptake: the whole neurotransmitter
molecule is taken back into the axon terminal
that released it. This is a common way the
action of norepinephrine, dopamine and
serotonin is stopped.
 Major Neurotransmitters (or mood
:hormones)

 These hormones are norepinephrine, dopamine

and serotonin.
 Another name for these hormones is monoamine
transporters; that is they carry important
messages along the neural pathway in the brain.

 When an imbalance of these hormones occurs, a

mood, energy or cognitive problem results.
 Norepinephrine
 Produced by the adrenal glands and nerve
cells to help us maintain energy and activity.

 Norepinephrine is also called noradrenalin

and behaves similar to adrenalin; it is
released in reaction to anger or emergency.
 Dopamine
 Associated with euphoria and desire or motivation,
also connected with the information pathway in
the brain

 A dopamine disorder or imbalance can cause

memory and cognitive loss as well as difficulty with
problem solving.
 Serotonin
 Help us feeling energetic, calm and assured.

 Most mood problems are associated with serotonin

imbalances.
 In addition to depression, serotonin is thought to function
in behavior, appetite control, muscle contraction, sleep,
mood, and many other areas. 

 Low levels of serotonin not only affect mood, but the ability
to cope with strong emotions.
 Low serotonin may also inhibit sensitivity to
possible consequences, which may explain why
aggression, impulsive behavior and suicide are
prolific in people with low serotonin levels.
 :The role of Serotonin

  Serotonin (5-hydorxytryptamine or 5-HT) is a

neurotransmitter that is believed play a significant
role in depression. 

  It is found throughout the body, with only a

relatively small portion present in the brain.

 It cannot cross the blood-brain barrier and must

be produced within the brain .
 This neurotransmitter is manufactured in the
brain from an amino acid called tryptophan,
which is found in protein-rich foods, with the
help of vitamins [B6] and [B12], folic acid,
and other nutrients.
 Serotonin's effects are normally inhibitory.

 It diminishes appetite, sexual behavior and

suppresses pain perception.

 Its absence has been correlated with an

increase of aggressive behavior &
depression
Serotonin & food
 Ironically, eating a protein-rich meal lowers
brain tryptophan and serotonin levels, while
eating a carbohydrate-rich snack has the
opposite effect.

 Tryptophan is a large amino acid that shares

an entry gate into the brain with several other
large amino acids such as tyrosine.
 When you eat a protein-rich meal you flood
the blood with both tryptophan and its
"competing" amino acids, and they all fight
for entry into the brain. Only a small amount
of tryptophan gets through the blood-brain
barrier
 In contrast, a carbohydrate-rich meal
triggers the release of insulin from the
pancreas.
 This hormone causes most amino acids
floating in the blood to be absorbed into
the body's (not the brain's) cells -- all, that
is, except tryptophan, which remains in the
bloodstream at relatively high levels.
 With the competition removed, tryptophan
can freely enter the brain, causing serotonin
levels to rise.

 The high serotonin levels, in turn, increase

feelings of calmness or drowsiness, improve
sleep patterns, increase pain tolerance, and
reduce cravings for carbohydraterich foods.
 Serotonin and Drugs

 The drugs used in relation to serotonin act on it

mainly in the following ways:
 Interfering with reuptake.
 deactivating serotonin before release from the
presynaptic cell
 interfering with the process of serotonin synthesis
 interfering with the binding of 5-HT to its
postsynaptic receptors or presynaptic receptors
 substituting the 5-HT to bind with the receptors.
 How Low Serotonin Causes
?Depression

Serotonin may affect depression in two ways:

 First:

Researchers have found that the reuptake of

serotonin is very fast, causing serotonin to be
absorbed too quickly.
 This depletes the available supply of
serotonin, causing mood and energy
problems.

 Most antidepressant medications are

designed to slow down this process and so
are called ‘selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors’ (SSRI’s).
Second:
 serotonin may be depleted is through the brain’s
defensive reaction to strong emotional stimuli,
such as stress or trauma.

 Repeated thoughts about or exposure to these

conditions reinforces the brain’s reduced serotonin
production.
 While this may help insulate one from a harmful
consequence, it also causes mood problems,
aggression and impulsive or risky behavior
because the sufferer is no longer sensitive to
possible consequences.
 Suicide is the most extreme, self-directed form of
this type of aggression.