Chapter 10

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION

In conduction heat flow in homogeneous & isotropic solids;
Main emphasis will be on the fallowing features of conductive
heat transfer;
 General law of conduction and modification for composite systems,
 Development of correlations based on conductive mode of heat
transfer, system geometry and nature of fluids.
 Conduction in steady state and unsteady state conditions,
 Heat flow in cylindrical and spherical systems,
 Heat flow with variable surface temperatures,
 Problems and industrial applications.
 Heat transfer
Heat transfer is the energy in transit due to 3-dimensional temperature difference.

No bulk movement or macroscopic motion of the particles.

Temperature gradient at any point is associated to the energy
possessed by the molecules at that point.
Energy is related to translational motional motion, internal
rotational and vibrational motion..
The net transfer rate of energy i.e. the random molecular
motion in unit time also known as “Diffusion of Energy”.
 Difference between Heat & Heat Flow

Nature of Heat
Heat is a Measure of the warmness or coldness of an object or substance with
reference to some standard value.
The degree of hotness; is known as temperature : i.e. Measure of average
value of kinetic energy.
• A form of energy associated with the movement ( Kinetic energy )
of atoms and molecules in any material.
• Heat always flow from higher to lower temperature of
a material, i.e. source to receiver
• Greater the temp. difference faster the flow of heat to
establish thermal equilibrium
 Heat flows or heat transfer

The rate at which heat is transferred between 2 objects is a function of

i. Temperature difference (temperature gradient),
ii. Properties of the heat flow medium,
iii. Conditions of transfer i.e. uni./multi- dimensional under steady
of unsteady states,
• Thermal conduction was originally called diffusional H.T.
• H.T. by conduction is a non-
mechanical energy transfer due to temperature difference
Symbol: Q Units : BTU - British Thermal Unit, Calorie, Joule,
• Rate of H.T. in SI units watt (symbol: W) is defined as 1 joule per second.
or BTU per hour or Calorie per Second.
• Heat flux or thermal flux- rate of heat energy transfer through a given
surface length per unit time [W/m]. Or heat rate per unit area, measured in
[W/m2].
• Heat flux density/ Heat source strength- heat rate per unit volume [W/m3 ]
• Heat transfer rate is a scalar quantity, while heat flux is a vector quantity.

Heat flows according to the fundamental laws of “Transfer Process”

 Transfer processes
in general;;

transfer

transfer

transfer
transfer
Transfer processes
transfer

transfer

transfer
Transfer processes

• Electric Current Transfer

Transfer processes
Modes of heat transfer

(If temperature gradient exists in a continuous

substance, heat can flow unaccompanied by any
observable motion of matter.)
 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
CONDUCTION CONVECTION RADIATION
 HEAT TRANSFER BY “CONDUCTION”
CONDUCTION- Occurs due to
atomic & molecular movement.

 Transfer of energy from

more energetic to less
energetic particles by the
interactions of atoms or
molecules in an object.

 Considering a gas (figure

1.2), entrapped between
two surfaces that are at
different temperature.
 Fourier’s law oF heat CoNDuCtioN:
According to Fourier’s Law, heat flux is proportional to the temp. gradient and opposite
to it in sign.
Definition of Fourier's law of heat conduction “the rate
Assumptions: of H.T. through a material is proportional to the negative
gradient in the temperature and to the area, at right
Steady state conduction. angles to that gradient, through which the heat flows.”

Fixed cross-sectional area of rod.

Considering an insulated cylindrical rod of known material.
Surfaces are maintained at different temperatures, T1 and T2, such that T1>T2.
Considering one dimensional heat transfer.
Isentropic & homogenous system.

Rate of heat transfer

Fourier’s Law of heat CONDUCTION:
From previous slides,

The collective effect is then,

So it can be concluded that,
Rate of heat transfer (proportional to) temperature gradient.
Rate of heat transfer (proportional to) surface area available for heat transfer.

“K” - proportionality constant (a transport property), known as thermal conductivity, (W/m.K), is a

characteristic of the material .
Negative sign indicates, temperature decreases as we move away from heat source (indicating
that the temperature is always transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature.
The equation for conduction tells us that the rate of heat transfer (Q/t) in Joules per
second or watts,
H.T. is equal to the thermal conductivity of the material (k), multiplied by the surface
area of the objects (A), multiplied by the difference in temperature between the two
materials (T2 - T1), divided by the distance.

For many simple applications, Fourier's law is used in its one-dimensional form. In
the x-direction,
Qx = −k A (dT/dx)
(dqx/dA) = −k (dT/dx)
Qx = rate of heat flow in direction normal to surface in the direction of x
A=Surface Area
T= Temperature
K= thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity(material transport property):
“ The rate of H.T. through an solid of
unit thickness per unit area per unit
temperature difference.”
 Heat Storage capacity differs with materials,
because of variation of specific heat “C” i.e.
ability to store thermal energy.
“Thermal conductivity “K” is the materials
ability to conduct heat.

WATER IRON
C (KJ/kg. degree C) 4.18 0.45
K (W/m.K) 0.607 80.2
Thermal conductivity:
 Thermal conductivity(Gasses and liquids):
Thermal conductivities for Gasses:
Thermal conductivity is normally highest in solids and lowest in
gases.
For gases, (Increase in temperature, increases average kinetic
energy of gases, which increases the chances of collisions and
energy transfer).
According to kinetic theory of gases, “thermal conductivity of
gases is proportional to the square root of the thermodynamic
temperature T, and inversely proportional to the square root of
molar mass M”
K = (0.0832/σ) ( T /M ) 0.5 where
T = Temperature , K M = molecular weight
σ= effective collision diameter , Angston (A)
Thermal conductivities for liquids:

Thermal conductivity of the liquids is more than the gasses

and the metals have the highest.

Thermal conductivity of the liquids increases with the

increase in temperature.

Thermal conductivity is affected by the phase change.

Thermal conductivity for liquids can be determined using
the fallowing modified version of Bridgman's equation.
N (Avogadro's number) = 6.02e23 ,
V (molar volume) = mass per density .
(Boltzmann's constant) 1.3807e-23 J/K.

νs, The speed of sound through the fluid of interest is

 Conductors and Insulators
Materials that transfer heat without storing
significant amount of heat are “conductors”.
Metals are usually good conductors.
Wood, paper and plastic are not.
Materials that store significant amount of heat
are “insulators” (Styrofoam, wool, fiberglass).
Thermal conductivity of solids at different
temperatures can be approximated by the
fallowing equation;
k = a + bT
where a and b are empirical constants
 The General Equations for Heat Transfer
• Differential form of equations comprehensively represent different systems of H.T.
• General Equations are useful to determine temperature distribution, rate of heat
flow, potential and resistance with in medium H.T. by any mode of H.T
• Cartesian Coordinates: Derivation is based on:
• Law of conservation of energy for a
differential control element;
• H.T. occurs exclusively by
conduction.
• Basic methodology remains same
for various coordinate systems but
parameters may change

  T    T    T  • T
k   k   z  k z   q  c p Change in thermal
x  x  y  y    t
energy storage
Net transfer of thermal energy into the
control volume (inflow-outflow) Thermal energy
generation
Mathematical correlations depend upon
i. ) The type of coordinate system:
ii. ) The point & angles the location in different coordinate systems
iii. ) Type of process conditions

Engineers deal with 3 types of

coordinate systems :-

◦ Cartesian Coordinates
system
◦ Cylindrical Coordinates
◦ Spherical Coordinates
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer

The term steady implies no change with time at any

point within the medium,
Temperature = f (location )
The term Transient or Unsteady implies variation
with time or time dependence.
Temperature = f ( time and location )

The temperature or heat flux remains unchanged

with time during steady heat transfer through a
medium at any location, although both quantities
may vary from one location to another.
 Differential Equation for Heat Conduction

Consider a differential element balance:

Assumptions:
1. Solid conduction thermal resistance
only.
2. Constant density, thermal conductivity
and specific heat.
Derivation Of a General Conduction Equation

Relationship between thermal

conductivity and conductance:

_________ (1)

• Equation (1) can be written in

differential form:
_________ (2)
If the insulation is removed from the cube so that the heat
travels along the X,Y and Z axes. Eq (7) will becomes
 Differential Equation for Heat Conduction

Consider a differential element balance along x-axis:

Rate of HEAT in - out:

Rate of HEAT generation:

Rate of HEAT accumulation:

Heat storage
based on mcPdT
 Differential Equation for Heat Conduction

Consider a differential element balance:

Measure of how
Recall the definition of quickly a material
thermal diffusivity: can carry heat away
from a source.

Dividing everything by k:

Differential Equation
for Heat Conduction
 Thermal diffusivity:
It is defined as the ratio of “heat conduction to the
heat storage”.

The material that has the higher thermal

conductivity
or a lower thermal capacity will obviously have a
higher thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, faster the
propagation of heat into the medium and vice versa.
Exercise Problems
 CH. 311 HEAT TRANSFER ASSIGNMENT # 1
Date of Submission 25th September 2018

1. What are the mechanisms of heat transfer applied in chemical industries? Why the heat transfer operations are
so important in industrial processes?
2. (a)Write down the expressions for the physical laws that govern each mode of heat transfer, and identify the
variables involved in each relation.
2. (b) Derive a General Conduction Equation for a cubical object in Cartesian coordinate system, if heat transfer
occurs under unsteady state conditions. Also simplify the derived equation for steady state conduction.
3.Consider heat transfer through a windowless wall of a house in a winter day. Discuss the parameters that affect the
rate of heat conduction through the wall. Identify the direction of heat transfer in extreme winter & summer seasons.
4. Differentiate between Homogeneous and Isotropic conducting material for heat transfer? How do real bodies differ from
ideal surfaces, support your answer with examples?
5.Write down the one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation for a long cylinder with constant thermal
conductivity and heat generation, and indicate what each variable represents.
6.Starting with an energy balance on a spherical shell volume element, derive the one-dimensional transient heat
conduction equation for a sphere with constant thermal conductivity and no heat generation.
7.Consider a medium in which the heat conduction equation is given in its simplest form as(a) Is heat transfer
steady or transient? (b) Is heat transfer one-, two-, or three-dimensional? (c) Is there heat generation or heat
removal in the medium? (d) Is the thermal conductivity of the medium constant or variable? (e) simplify the given
equation, if heat transfer occurs only in radial direction.

Numerical
Problems 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.15