BFC 21002 (Construction Engineering)

Chapter 1: Sub Structure

(Shallow Foundation & Deep Foundation)
Isham Bin Ismail
isham@uthm.edu.my

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 Chapter Learning Outcome
• 1. Produce construction sequence procedure

• 2. Produce method of construction stage with

sketch and details

• 3. Select the most effective method for

construction of shallow foundation

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 Introduction
SUB STRUCTURE
• The lowest portion of the building
structure.

• Usually located below the ground level.

• A foundation is a part of the structure

which is in direct contact with the ground
to which the loads are transmitted

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 Functions of the foundations
• To distribute the load of the structure over a
larger area.
• To transmit the load uniformly under the
structure.
• To provide a firm, level and strong base over
which the superstructure may be constructed.

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• To avoid any settlement or other movement
that can cause damage to any part of the
building
• To increase the stability of the structure by
preventing its tilting or overturning against
winds, earthquakes and uneven distribution of
live load (Lateral Stability).

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 Type of foundation is based on
• Loading of the building (size, shape, height
ext)
• Types of soil (soft, medium or hard or
combination)
• Economical / financial

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• Location of soil strata. Evaluate the ability of
the soil to support the ultimate loads.
• The capability of the structure that will safely
transfer the loads from the superstructure to
the foundation bed

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• The possibility and extent of settlement of the
soil due to the presence of mines and quarries
• The ability for engineers to fix the depth of
the foundation.
• The ability to determine if the underground
water has sulfates or other salts that can
degrade the foundation materials.

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 Types of Soils
• Soft soils - This soil is compressible and yields
when loaded. Examples are clayey soil and loam.
Small buildings or ordinary structures can be built
on these types of soils
• Spreading soils - These are non-cohesive soils.
Examples of this type of soil are sand and gravel.
• Hard or rocky soils - These are incompressible
and strong soils. They can withstand heavy loads
without yielding. Multistoried buildings and
water reservoirs are designed on such soils.
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 Soil Investigation
• Base on borehole result,
– Choose the critical point load for borehole
– Every end of the building
– Supervise the S.I properly make sure no mistake
• bearing capacity value
• original ground level and purposed level or
formation level

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Forces pushing down must equal the forces pushing up - EQUILIBRIUM

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 Heave If the forces pushing up is
greater than the forces pushing
down the building will be
pushed upwards – HEAVE

If forces pushing down is

greater than the forces pushing
up the building will sink –
Subside SUBSIDENCE

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 Types of loads
• Live Load (Qk) - A live load or imposed load is a
movable, temporary or transferable load. This can
include moving vehicles, people walking or
children jumping
• Dead Load (Gk)- This load is permanent and
immovable. It is the non- transferable load of the
structure itself.
• Wind Load (Wk) - This load is applicable when the
structure is tall.
• Snow Load - This load is considered when the
structure is situated in snowy, hilly areas.
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 Types of Foundation
• Shallow foundation
– Pad footing
– Strip footing
– Raft foundation
• Deep foundation
– RC pile
– Spun pile
– Bore pile

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 Method of construction
for Pad Footing
• Setting out (level/ point/ location/ offset point/ timber
boundary)
• Excavation works (working space/ machineries/ tools – water
pump)
• Providing a materials (Rebar/ starter bars/ Formwork/
Cement/ Sand/ Aggregate)
• Formwork installation (max 3 times used)
• Reinforcement installation
• Inspection (Rebar/ starter bars/ FW/ Level/ Orientation/
Shape/ Size)
• Concreting (Mixing/ Pouring/ Curing/ Testing)
• As-built drawing
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 Q&A
• Concreting??? (time/ volume/ access/
manpower/ tools
• Excavation??? (under ground water???)
• Setting out???

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 Circular Pad Footing
• This foundation are round in plan view.
• These are more frequently used as foundation
for light standard, flagpoles, and power
transmission line.
• If these foundation extend to a large depth,
they may be have more like a deep
foundation.

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 These are usefull
when columns are
located too close
together for each to
have its own footing.

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 Combined Footing Foundation
• In this type, the two walls or columns of a
superstructure are provided with a single
combined footing.
• This is designed so that the center of gravity of
the supporting area is in proportion to the
center of gravity of the tow column loads.
• These can be rectangular or trapezoidal in
shape.

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 Spread/Strip Footing
No Types of Spread Footings Applicable

1 Square for a single centrally-located column

2 Rectangular when large moment load are present

3 Circular for light standards, flagpoles etc

4 Continuous for bearing walls

(wall/strip footings)

5 Combined when columns are close together

6 Ring for walls of above-ground circular storage tanks

7 Strap (cantilever footing) when very close to a property line/other structure

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 Spread/Strip Footings
• Also known as footer or simply a footing or
wall foundation or continues spread footing
foundation.
• An enlargement at the bottom of a column or
bearing wall that spreads the applied
structural loads over a sufficiently large soil
area.
• It uses is to support load bearing wall.

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 Characteristic of Spread Footings
• Low Cost
• Ease of construction
• For small-medium size structures with
moderate-good soil.
• For large structures with exceptionally good
soil or shallow bedrock.

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 Continuous Spread Footings
• This type of foundation is also known as wall
foundation or strip foundation.
• It uses is to support bearing wall.

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 Ring Spread Footing
• This footing are continuous footing that been
wrapped into a circle.
• This type of footing is commonly used to
support the walls of above-ground circular
storage tanks.

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 Stepped Foundation
(Spread Footings)
• This type of foundation is one of the pad
foundation types.
• When the structure is to be constructed on the
hill slopes, this type of foundation is used.
• The foundation trenches are excavated in steps
and each step is filled with some concrete.
• Each block of concrete is overlapped by the next
block, and so on.
• Square footings usually support a single centrally-
located column

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 Method of construction
for Spread Footing
• Setting out (level/ point/ location/ offset point/ timber
boundary)
• Excavation works (working space/ machineries/ tools – water
pump)
• Providing a materials (Rebar/ starter bars/ Formwork/
Cement/ Sand/ Aggregate)
• Formwork installation (max 3 times used)
• Reinforcement installation
• Inspection (Rebar/ starter bars/ FW/ Level/ Orientation/
Shape/ Size)
• Concreting (Mixing/ Pouring/ Curing/ Testing)
• As-built drawing
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 Q&A
• Different between pad and spread footing
– Method
– Shape
– Level
– Setting out
– ????

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 Excersice
• Develop construction method for strip footing
• Develop construction method for raft
foundation
• What will happened if water table is above
excavation level

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 Raft Foundation
• Also known as Mat Foundation or Floating
Foundation.
• Suitable for heavily constructed loads are to be
distributed over a large surface area (uniform
distribution load structure).
• It is used where the soil is marshy, clayey or soft,
with weak bearing capacity.
• This consists of reinforced concrete slabs covering
the entire area of construction such a big floor
slab.

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Consideration of using Raft Foundation
• The structural loads are so high require large
area to spread the load
• The soil condition is erratic and prone to
differential settlements
• The bottom of structure is located below
groundwater table (uplift force are larger).
• Raft foundation are more easier to
waterproof.

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 Deep Foundation
• RC Pile
• Spun Pile
• Bore Pile

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 Deep Foundation
• they are embedded into the ground by the depth.
• the reasons are because of large design loads, a
poor soil at shallow depth, or site constraints (like
property lines).
• Using piles (by driving pile into the ground)
• Using drilled shafts (drilling a shaft and filling it
with concrete and reinforced)
• It can be made out of timber, steel, reinforced
concrete and pre-tensioned concrete

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 Deep Foundation
• In cases where the soil stratum is not stable or
strong, it is necessary to take the foundation
deeper to reach the stable stratum.
• For instance, in cases of river bridges, it is
important to reach soil stratum below the
scour depth of the rivers to prevent
settlement.

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 Pile Foundation
• It’s part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load to
the bearing ground located at some depth below ground
surface.
• The main components of the deep foundation are the pile
cap and the piles.
• Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load
to deeper soil or rock which have high bearing capacity
• The pile can be made from wood, steel and reinforce
concrete. Piles made from these materials are driven,
drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to pile
caps.
• Type of soil pile material and load transmitting
characteristic piles are classified accordingly.

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 Function of piles
• to transmit a foundation load to a solid
ground
• to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load

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 Fundamental of pile design
• End bearing piles (point bearing piles)
• Friction piles (cohesion piles )
• Combination of friction and cohesion piles

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 End bearing piles
• These piles transfer their load on to a firm
stratum located at a considerable depth below
the base of the structure and they derive most of
their carrying capacity from the penetration
resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile.
• The pile behaves as an ordinary column and
should be designed as such. Even in weak soil a
pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need
only be considered if part of the pile is
unsupported, i.e. if it is in either air or water.
Load is transmitted to the soil through friction or
cohesion.

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 End bearing piles
• But sometimes, the soil surrounding the pile
may adhere to the surface of the pile and
causes "Negative Skin Friction" on the pile.
This, sometimes have considerable effect on
the capacity of the pile. Negative skin friction
is caused by the drainage of the ground water
and consolidation of the soil. The founding
depth of the pile is influenced by the results of
the site investigate on and soil test.
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 Friction piles
• These piles also transfer their load to the
ground through skin friction.
• The process of driving such piles does not
compact the soil appreciably.
• These types of pile foundations are commonly
known as floating pile foundations.
• Length and size of the pile will related to
amount of friction

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Causes of foundation failure

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 RC Pile

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Method of pile cap by using RC Pile
• Platform level
• Setting out pile point position
• Pile installation
• Excavation to C.O.L
• Cut of pile (including starter bars length)
• Lean concrete
• As built drawing and analysis
Method of pile cap by using RC Pile
• Install rebar
• Install fw
• Install spacer block
• Install starter bar for stump
• Inspection
• Concrete work
 Spun Pile
• Size : 250mm to 1000mm
• Lengths : 6m, 9m and 12m (Typical)
• Structural Capacity : 45Ton to 520Ton
• Material : Grade 60MPa & 80MPa Concrete
• Joints: Welded
• Installation Method :
–Drop Hammer
–Jack-In
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Spun Piles vs RC Square Piles
Spun Piles have …
• •Better Bending Resistance
• •Higher Axial Capacity
• •Better Manufacturing Quality
• •Able to Sustain Higher Driving Stresses
• •Higher Tensile Capacity
• •Easier to Check Integrity of Pile
• •Similar cost as RC Square Piles

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Bored Piles
• Size : 450mm to 2m
• Lengths : Varies
• Structural Capacity : 80Ton to 2,300Tons
• Concrete Grade : 20MPa to 30MPa (Tremie)
• Joints : None
• Installation Method : Drill then Cast-In-Situ

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 Bored piles
• Bored piles (Replacement piles) are
considered to be non-displacement piles
• A void is formed by boring or excavation
before piles is produced.
• Piles can be produced by casting concrete in
the void.
• Some soils such as stiff clays, bore hole walls
do not requires temporary support except
cloth to the ground surface.

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 Bored piles
• In unstable ground, such as gravel the ground
requires temporary support from casing or
bentonite slurry. Alternatively the casing may
be permanent, but driven into a hole which is
bored as casing is advanced. A different
technique, which is still essentially non-
displacement, is to intrude, a grout or a
concrete from an auger which is rotated into
the granular soil, and hence produced a
grouted column of soil.

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Borepile Cosiderations…
• •Borepile Base Difficult to Clean
• •Bulging / Necking
• •Collapse of Sidewall
• •Dispute on Level of Weathered Rock

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 Factors to be considered in selecting pile type

The required diameter

The required length

The applied loads
(limit: 18m)

Factors to be considered in
selecting a pile type
(timber, steel, concrete or composite)

The anticipated The durability of pile The local availability

driving conditions material in specific of each pile type
environment

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 Advantages & Disadvantages
Spun Pile

No Advantages Disadvantages

1 Best suited for use as friction piles that Expensive to splice and cut

don't meet refusal during driving

(refusal: pile can't be driven any further, so

it becomes necessary to cut off the portion)

2 Best suited for toe-bearing piles where the Difficult to cut

required length is uniform and predictable

3 Less expensive than steel piles Succeptible to damage during handling

or driving

4 Have a large load capacity Not suited for hard driving conditions

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 Advantages & Disadvantages
Bore Pile
No Advantages Disadvantages

1 Less costs of mobilizing and demobilizing a drill rig Dependent on contractor's skills

2 Less noise and vibration Lower unit end bearing capacity

3 Soils excavated can be observed and classified Expensive for full-scale load test

during drilling

4 Size of shafts can easily be changed during const.

5 Can penetrate soils with cobbles, boulders and

many types of bedrock

6 Possible to support each column with one large

shaft (no pile cap)

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 Drilled Equipments
• Drilling Rigs
– Truck-mounted drilling rig
• For usual shaft, d=500 – 1200mm and H=6.24m
– Specialized rigs
– A-Shaped Frame Rigs

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• Drilling Tools
 The helix-shaped flight auger (most common
used)
– Effective in most sols and soft rocks
 Augers with hardened teeth and pilot stingers
– Effective in hardpan or moderately hard rock
 Spiral-shaped rooting tools
– Help loosen cobbles and boulders

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 Bucket augers
– To collect cuttings in a cylindrical bucket
– Used in running sands
 Belling buckets
– To enlarge the bottom of the shaft (bells or
under reams)
 Core barrels
– To cut a circular slot,creating a removable core
– Used in hard rock
 Multi-roller percussion bits
– To cut through hard rock
 Cleanout buckets
– To remove final cuttings from hole
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 Drilled Techniques
• Drilling in Firm Soils
– Using dry method (open-hole method)
– Most common used: simple, economy and good
reability

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• Steps:
– Holes usually advance using conventional flight
auger
– Holes remain open without any special support
– Check the open hole for cleanliness and alignment
– Insert steel reinforcing cage
– Pour the concrete

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• Drilling in Caving (Cave-in) or Squeezing Soils
– Caving:
• The side of a hole which is collapse before or
during concrete placement.
• Usually in clean sands below the groundwater
table.

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– Squeezing:
• The sides of hole bulging inward during or after drilling
• Usually in soft clays and silts or highly organic soils.
– Most common techniques:
• Using casing
• Drilling fluid (slurry method) using bentonite clay or
attapulgite clay.

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Pile Cap In the British Standard Code of Practice BS 8004, a pile cap
is defined as a concrete block cast on the head of a pile, or a group
of piles, to transmit the load from the structure to the pile or group
of piles.
Generally, pile cap transfers the load form the structures to a pile /
pile group, then the load further transfers to from soil
External pressures on a pile are likely to be greatest near the ground
surface. Ground stability increases with depth and pressure. The top
of the pile therefore, is more vulnerable to movement and stress
than the base of the pile. Pile caps are thus incorporated in order to
tie the pile heads together so that individual pile movement and
settlement is greatly reduced. Thus stability of the pile group is
greatly increased.

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Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups
of piles connected by a pile cap (a large concrete
block into which the heads of the piles are
embedded) to distribute loads which are larger than
one pile can bear.
Pile caps and isolated piles are typically connected
with grade beams to tie the foundation elements
together; lighter structural elements bear on the
grade beams while heavier elements bear directly on
the pile cap.

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 Pile cap
• Function:
– To distribute the structural loads to the piles.
– To tie the piles together so they can act as a unit.
– To laterally stabilise individual piles thus increasing
overall stability of the group
– To provide the necessary combined resistance to
stresses set up by the superstructure and/or
ground movement

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SUMMARY
• Importance of Preliminary Study
• Understanding the Site Geology
• Carry out Proper Subsurface Investigation
that Suits the Terrain & Subsoil
• Selection of Suitable Pile
• Pile Design Concepts

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SUMMARY
• Importance of Piling Supervision
• Typical Piling Problems Encountered
• Present Some Case Histories

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 - END -

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