Carbohydrate

• Definition: aldehyde or ketone derivatives of

polyhidric alcohols
• Classification:
– Monosaccharides
– Disaccharides
– Oligosaccharides
– Polysaccharides
• Roles:
– Major constituents of animal food and animal
tissues (storage and structural)
– Important constituents of nucleotides and nucleic
acids
– Energy source for plants and animals
– Source of carbon in metabolic processes
 Lipid
• Definition: Heterogenous group of compounds
which is relatively insoluble in water and
soluble in nonpolar solvents.
• Classification:
– Simple: fats, waxes.
– Complex: phospholipids, glycolipids, other
complex lipids.
– Precursor and derived lipids
• Roles:
– Important constituent of diet
– Energy source and storage
– Structural
– Cell communication/signalling
 Protein
• Definition: high molecular weight
polypeptides (MW: 5.000-25.000.000 Da)
– C, H, O, N
– Most protein contain S, some contain P
• Classification:
– Simple
– Conjugated
– Derived
• Roles:
– Cell function: contractile, storage, transport,
enzymatic, toxin, hormones
– Cell structure
 Nucleic Acids
• The organic compounds making up the genetic
material of living cells.
• Classification:
– DNA
– RNA
• Role:
– Nucleic acids direct the course of protein synthesis,
thereby regulating all cell activities.
• Their transmission from one generation to the
next is the basis of heredity.
1952 : WATSON & CRICK: The coiled structure of a double-
stranded DNA molecule in which strands linked by hydrogen bonds
form a spiral configuration. Also called DNA helix, Watson-Crick
helix.

The genomic era has begun

 WHAT IS A GENOME?

Genome: contains all of the biological information needed

to build and maintain a living example of that organism.

The biological information contained in a genome is

encoded in its deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and is divided
into discrete units called genes.

Genes code for proteins that attach to the genome at the

appropriate positions and switch on a series of reactions
called gene expression.
 Genomic studies in molecular biology has
changed the paradigm in medicine

• When Anatomy and Physiology were

discovered : organ approach medicine
• Histology and citology plus cytogenetics :
cellular approach
• Genomic era : molecular biology approach

Medicine and Medical practices become more sophisticated

 Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
• Francis Crick: The Central Dogma is:
"DNA makes RNA, RNA makes protein, and proteins
make us.“

But only DNA is inherited to progeny

Inside the cell, however, DNA must be transmitted to
RNA ( TRANSCRIPTION) to make protein
(TRANSLATION) in ribosom
Genetic variation, evolution and
mutation
A mutation is any change occurring in the message
that a gene carries.
Mutations mainly arise as copy errors when DNA is
replicated at mitosis and meiosis.
 In medicine
• Disease occur as a result of host-
parasite/pathogen relationship
• Evolution happen in the host genome as well as
in its pathogen

• But mutation can happen spontaneously, or as

the impact of pollution, mutagenic substances in
food, UV light exposure etc.
Sickle cell anemia

Mutation in a globin gene

• An influential study has
identified the key
mutation of the H5N1
influenza virus, needed
for it’s efficient
replication in the upper
respiratory tracts of
mice as a mammalian
model.

Indonesia : the highest morbidity and the highest

mortality of Human Avian Influenzae cases
In the year 2000: the DNA sequence/ genetic
map of human has been completed
 President Clinton,
June 26,2000

• “ We are learning the language in

which God created life......without a
doubt, this is the most important,
most wondrous map ever produced
by humankind “

3 billion base pair, until now about 30.000 genes deciphered

 After HUGO= human genome project

• Enter the era of functional genomic = proteomic

• With the enormous gene data : scientist develop new
science : BIOINFORMATICS

• Last December 2007 : NIH –USA launched the HUMAN

MICROBIOME PROJECT
• The aim : to understand the genomic function of human
and all microbes reside in the body
 Now approach in disease management
has been changed
• Based on genome data, as the results of gene sequencing in
healthy as well as sick-patient from time to time during their
disease : we understand the
• MOLECULAR PATHOGENESIS,
ONCOGENESIS,
Molecular basic of human error metabolism
Molecular aspect of inherited diseases
Molecular aspect of cell differentiation and aging
etc.
 Based on bioinformatics

• The science of PHARMACOGENOMICS is

developed
• To understand the relation between
human cell and the medicine/ drugs to
produce better and suitable drug with no
side effect
 Also based on gene bank data, many other
science and bio-industry are developed
• Forensic medicine
• Molecular immunology
• Development of vaccine technology using genetic engineering
approach
• Gene cloning – animal cloning – stem cell research
• New antibiotics and cytostatic,
• Bioterrorism using genetically modified microbes
• etc
DEVELOPMENT OF MOLECULAR
DIAGNOSTICS

As well as EARLY CANCER

DETECTION

GAMBARAN KROMOSOM PADA Ca

mammae
Bacteria
 Genetic material between
prokaryote and eukaryote

No. Prokaryote Eukaryote

1 Location nucleosome nucleus
2. Gene direction Overlap One direction
3. Gene formation Just exon Consist exon
and intron
4. Chromosom One chromosom Several
chromosom
 Bacterial
Chromosom
Structure bacterial Chromosomal DNA
Relaxed and supercoiled DNA
 Plasmid
• Extra chromosomal DNA that replicate independently
of the bacterial chromosome
• Size 2.2- 210 kb
• Generally carry genes encoding functios that may be
useful to the cell in certain circumstances
• Kinds of plasmid
– Fertility (F) plasmid
– Resistance (R) plasmid
• Hfr (high-frequency recombination) strain  strain
that have an F plasmid integrated into chromosom
F plasmid
transfer
F plasmid
transfer
 Resistance character as genetic marker in DNA
recombinant

amp
Plasmid without
Plasmid with resistant gene
resistant gene

transformation

Bacterial sensitive Bacterial sensitive

ampicilin ampicilin

Bacterial resistant Bacterial sensitive

ampicilin ampicilin
Virus
 Genetic in virus

• DNA virus (ssDNA, dsDNA)

• RNA virus (ss RNA)
 Virus and
its material genetic
 Pathway of nucleic acid transcription for various
virus classes
Type of viral Intermediates Type of mRNA Example
nucleic acid
+ds DNA None + mRNA Most DNA virus (e.g.
herpesvirus
+ss DNA +ds DNA + mRNA Parvovirus
+ds RNA None + mRNA Reovirus
+ss RNA +ds RNA + mRNA Picornavirus,
togavirus, flavivirus
-ss RNA None + mRNA Rhabdovirus,
paramyxovirus
+ss RNA - DNA, + DNA + mRNA Retrovirus

ds = double-stranded, ss = single-stranded, - indicates negative strand, + indicates positive strand, +

indicates a helix containing a positive and negative strand
 Mutation in virus
• Genetic drift
• Genetic shift
Postulated evolution of human influenza A viruses
from 1889 to 1977