BRAIN

ACHMAD AMINUDDIN
MAJOR PARS OF THE BRAIN
 THE BRAIN STEM
Consists of the medulla oblongata, pons and
midbrain
 CREBELLUM
 DIENCEPHALON
Consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus and
epithalamus
 CEREBRUM
Fig 14.1
PROTECTIVE COVERING OF
THE BRAIN
 The cranium
 The cranial meninges
- Duramater
- Falx cerebri
- Falx cerebelli
- Tentorium cerebelli
- Arachnoid mater
- Piamater
Fig 14,2
 MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 The medulla begins at the foramen magnum
and extends to the inferior border of the pons,
a distance of about 3 cm.
 The medulla‘s white matter
- Sensory tracts.
- Motor tracts.
- Pyramids
 The decussation of pyramids
 MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 The cardiovascular center
 The medullary rhythmicity area of the
respiratory center adjust the basic rhythm of
breathing.
 Nuclei controls reflexes for fomiting, coughing
swallowing, hiccuping and sneezing.
 Within the olive is the inferior olivary nucleus.
Neuron here relay impulsis from
proprioceptors to the cerebellum
Fig 14.5
Fig 14.6
 MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 The right and left gracile nucleus and cuneate
nucleus.
 The medial lemniscus
 Five pairs of cranial nerves
- Vestibulocochlear N.
- Glossopharyngeal N.
- Vagus N.
- Accessory N ( cranial portion )
- Hypoglossal N.
 RESPIRATORY CENTER
 THE MEDULLARY RHYTHMICITY
- in the medulla ( inspiratory and expr area ).
- control the basic rhythm of respiration.
 THE PNEUMOTAXIC AREA

- in the pons
- help turn off the inspiratory area before the
the lungs become too full – breathing > rap
■ APNEUSTIC AREA
- in the pons, sends stimulatory impuls to the
inspiratory area – long and deep inhalation
 MEDULLARY RYTHMICITY
AREA
 DURING NORMAL QUIET BREATHING
Inspiratory area ACTIVE , 2 seconds
- diaphragm and external intercostals contract.
- normal quiet inhalation
Inspiratory area INACTIVE , 3 second
- diaphragm and external intercostal relax ,
followed by elastic recoil of the chestwall
and lungs.
- normal quiet exhalation
 MEDULLARY RYTHMICITY
AREA
 During forceful breathing
Inspiratory area active
- diaphragm, sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis
minor and scalene muscles contract ---------
forceful inhalation.
- Expiratory area
- internal intercostal and abdominal muscles
contract ---------- forceful exhalation
 PONS
 The pons lies directly superior to the medulla and
anterior to the cerebellum and is about 2,5 cm
 Several pontine nuclei
 The pneumotaxic area.
 The apneustic area
 Four pairs of cranial nerves
- Trigeminal n.
- Abducents n.
- Facial n.
- Vestibulocochlear n.
 PNEUMOTAXIC AREA

 In the pons
 Help coordinate the transition between
inhalation and exhalation.
 Help turn off the inspiratory area before the
lungs become too full of air.
 If more active , breathing rate is more rapid
 APNEUSTIC AREA

 In the pons.
 Coordinates the transition between inhalation
and exhalation.
 Stimularory impulses to theinspiratory area
that activate it and prolong inhalation. The
result is a long and deep inhalation
 MIDBRAIN
 Mesencephalon extends from the pons to the
diencephalon, is about 2,5 cm.
 The cerebral aqueduct passes through the midbrain.
 Cerebral peduncles
- Corticospinal tract.
- Corticopontine.
- Corticobulbar.
 Tectum
- The superior colliculi
 MIDBRAIN
 TECTUM
Superior colliculi
- Refflex centers for certain visual activity.
- Responsible for reflexes that govern
movements of the eyes, head and neck in
response to visual stimuli.
Inferior colliculi
 MIDBRAIN
 TECTUM
Inferior colliculi
- part of the auditory pathway, relaying impul
ses from the receptors for hearing in the ear
to thalamus.
- reflexcenter for the startle reflex ( moveme
ment of the head and body )
Fig 14.7 a
Fig 14.7 b
 MIDBRAIN
 TECTUM
Inferior colliculi
- Part of the auditory pathway, relaying impul
from the receptors for hearing in the ear to
the thalamus.
- Reflex centers for the startle reflex.
 MIDBRAIN
 Substantia nigra
- Release dopamine.
- Extending from the substantia nigra to the
basal ganglia, help control suconscious
muscle activity.
- Loss of these nurons is associated with
Parkinson disease.
 MIDBRAIN
 Red nuclei
- Axon from the cerebellum and cerebral
cortex form synapses in the red nuclei, which
function with the cerebellum tocoordinate
muscular movements
 Cranial nerve
- Oculomotor n.
- Trochlear n.
 RETICULAR FORMATION
 The broad region where white matter and gray matter exhibit
netlike arrangement .
 Extends from the upper part of the spinal cord , throughout the
brain stem, and into the lower part of the diencephalon.
 Have ascending and descending neurons.
 The reticular activating system ( RAS )
- Consists of sensory axons that project to the
cerebral cortex .
- Help maitain consciousness and is activate during
awakening from sleep.
- Help regulate muscle tone .
Fig 16.10
 THE CEREBELLUM
 Fig 14.8 a
Fig 14.8 c
 THE CEREBELLUM
 The anterior and posterior lobes govern
subconscious aspects of skeletal muscle
movements.
 The flocculonodular lobe contributes to
equilibrium and balance.
 Cerebellar nuclei, within the white matter, are
the region of gray matter that give rise to axon
carrying impulses from the cerebellum to other
brain centers and the spinal cord.
CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLES
 The inferior cerebellar peduncles
- Carry sensory information from the vestibular
apparatus of the inner ear and from proprio-
ceptors throughout the body into the cerebe-
llum; their axons extend from the inferior
olivary nucleus of the medulla and from the
spinocerebellar tracts of the spinal cord into the
cerebellum
 The middle cerebellar peduncles
CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLES
 The middle cerebellar peduncles
- Their axons carry commands for voluntary
movements ( those that originate in motor
area of the cerebral cortex ) from the pontine
nuclei into the cerebellum.
 The superior cerebellar peduncles
- Contain axons that extend from the cerebe –
llum to the red nuclei of the midbrain and to
several nuclei of the thalamus.
 THE DIENCEPHALON
 Extends from the brain stem to the cerebrum
and surounds the third ventricle.
 Includes
- Thalamus.
- Hypothalamus.
- Epithalamus.
 THALAMUS
 3cm in length and make up 80% of the
diencephalon.
 Consist of paired oval masses of gray matter
organized into nuclei with interspersed tract of
white matter.
 The intermediate mass joints the right and left
halves of the thalamus in about 70 %
Fig 14.9
 THALAMUS
 The thalamus is the major relay station for
most sensory impulses that that reach the
primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex
from the spinal cod and brain stem. Although
crude perseption of pain ful, thermal and
pressure sensations arise at the level of the
thalamus , precise localization of these
senasations depends on nerve impulses ariving
at the cerebral cortex
 THALAMUS
 The thalamus contributes to motor functions
by transmitting information from the
cerebellum and basal ganglia to the primary
motor area of the cerebral cortex. It also relays
nerve impulses between different area of the
cerebrum, and plays arole in the regulation of
autonomic activities and the maintenance of
consciousness. Axon that connect the thalamus
and cerebral cortex pass through the internal
capsule
 THALAMUS
 The internal medullary lamina, devides the
gray matter of the right and left of the
thalamus. It consist of myelinated axons that
enter and leave the various thalamic nuclei.
 Seven major groups of nuclei
1. The anterior nucleus, connect to the
hypothalamus and limbic system. It function
in emotions, regulation of alertness, and
memory.
 SEVEN MAJOR GROUP OF
NUCLEI
 The anterior nucleus.
 The medial nuclei, connect to the cerebral cortex,
limbic system and basal ganglia. They function in
emotions, learning, memory, awareness and cognition
 Nuclei in the lateral group connect to the superior
colliculi, limbic system, and cortex in all lobes of the
cerebrum.
The lateral dorsal nucleus functions in the expression
of emotions
 SEVEN MAJOR GROUP OF
NUCLEI
 The lateral posterior nucleus and pulvinar
nucleus help integrate sensory information.
 Five nuclei are part of the ventral group. The
ventral anterior nucleus contribute to motor
functions, possibly movement planning. The
ventral lateral nucleus, connect to the
cerebellum and motor parts of the of the
cerebral cortex. It neurons are active during
movements on the opposite side of the body.
 SEVEN MAJOR GROUP OF
NUCLEI
 The ventral posterior nucleus,relays impulses for
somatic sensations such as touch, pressure,
proprioception, vibration, heat cold, and pain from
the face and body to the cerebral cortex.
 The lateral feniculate nucleus, relays visual impulses
for sight from the retina to the primary visual area of
the cerebral cortex.
 The medial geniculate nucleus, relays auditory
impulses for hearing from the ear to the primary
auditory area of the cerebral cortex.
 SEVEN MAJOR GROUP OF
NUCLEI
 Intralaminar nuclei, lie within the internal medullary lamina
and make connection with the reticular formation, cerebellum,
basal ganglia and wide areas of the cerebral cortex.They
funcion in pain peception, integration of sensory and motor
information and aurosal.
 Themidline nucleus form a thin band adjacent to the third
ventricle and has a presumed functin in memory and olfaction.
 The reticular nucleus, surround the lateral aspect of the
thalamus, nect to the internal capsule. This nuclei monitors,
filters and integrate activities of othe thalamic nuclei.
 HYPOTHALAMUS
 The mammilary region, includes mammilary
bodies and posterior hypothalamic nuclei. The
mammilary bodies serve as relay stations for
reflexes related to the sense of smell.
 The tuberal region includes the dorsomedial
nucleus, ventromedial nucleus and arcuate
nucleus, plus the infundibulum. The median
eminence encircle infundibulum.
Fig 14.10
 HYPOTHALAMUS
 The supraoptic region, contains the paraventri cular
nucleus, supraoptic nucleus, anterior hypothalamic
nucleus and suprachiasmatic nucleus. Axon from the
paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei form the
hypothalamohypo physeal tract, which extends
through the infundibulum to theposterior lobe of the
pituitary.
 Preoptic region, participates with the hypothalamus in
regulating certain autonomic activities.Preoptic
region contains the medial and lateral preoptic nuclei.
 HYPOTHALAMUS
 Control of the ANS. Axon extend from the
hypothalamus to sympathetic and parasympathetic
nuclei in the brain stem and spinal cord.
 Production of hormones
 Regulation of emotional and bihavioral patterns.
Together with the limbic system.
 Regulation of eating and drinking.
Through the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei.
Thirst center.
 HYPOTHALAMUS
 Control of body temperature.
Directs the autonomic nervous system.
 Regulation of circadian rhythmsa nd states of
consciousness.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus , this nucleus
receives input from the eyes ( retina ) and
sends output to other hypothalamic nuclei, the
reticular formation, and the pineal gland
 EPITHALAMUS
 Consists of the pineal gland and habenulare
nuclei.
 Pineal gland, it secretes the hormone
melatonin. As more melatonin is liberated
during darkness than in light. Melatonin also
appears to contribute to the setting of the
body`s biological clock.
 The habenular nuclei, are involved in olfaction
especially emotional responses to odors
 CIRCUM VENTRICULAR
ORGAN
 Can monitor chemical changes in the blood
 CVOs include part of hypothalamus, the pineal
gland, the pituitary gland, and a few other
nearby structures.
 CVOs , coordinate homeostatik activities of
the endocrine and nervous systems, such as the
regulation of blood pressure, fluid balance,
hunger and thirst
 THE CEREBRUM
 Fig 14.11
CEREBRAL WHITE MATTER
 ASSOCIATION TRACTS, contain axons that
conduct nerve impulses between gyri in the same
hemisphere.
 COMMISSURAL TRACTS, contain axons that
conduct nerve impulses from gyri in one cerebral
hemosphere to corresponding gyri in the other
cerebral hemisphere. Three commissural tracts are
corpus callosum, anterior commissure and posterior
commissure.
 PROJECTION TRACTS, an example is the internal
capsule ( conduct n impulses from the cerebrum to
the lower parts of the CNS or reverse )
 BASAL GANGLIA
 CORPUS STRIATUM
- Lentiform nucleus
- Globus pallidus.
- Putamen.
- Caudate nuclei
 Nearby structures that are functionally linked
to the basal ganglia are the substantia nigra of
the midbrain and the subthalamic nuclei
 BASAL GANGLIA
 The basal ganglia receive impul from the cerebral
cortex and provide output back to motor part of the
cortex via medial and ventral group nuclei of the
thalamus
 Help regulate initiation and termination of movement
.
 Activity of neuronsin the putamen precedes or
anticipates body movement, and activity of neurons
in the caudate nucleus occur prior to eye movements
 BASAL GANGLIA
 The globus pallidus helps regulate the muscle
tone required for specific body movement.
 Control subconscious contraction of skeletal
muscles.
 Help initiate and terminate some cognitive
processes.
 Act with the limbic system to regulate
emotional bihaviors.
 CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
 Damage to the basal ganglia, result in uncontrollable
shaking ( tremor ) , muscular regidity, and
involuntary muscle movement.
 Movement disruptions such as these are a hallmark of
disorder like Parkinson disease. In this disorder ,
neuron that extend from the substantia nigra to the
putamen and caudate nucleus degenerate, causing
disruption.
 Some psychiatric disorders, are thought to involve
dysfunction of circuit between the basal ganglia and
the limbic system.
 INTERNAL CAPSULE
 BETWEEN THE LENTIFORN NUCLEUS
AND THE THALAMUS
 THE MOST COMMON SITE FOR A
STROKE .
 CONTAI FIBERS RUNNING FROM
THALAMUS TO CORTEX AND FROM
CORTEX TO THALAMUS, BRAIN STEM
AND SPINAL CORD.
 INTERNAL CAPSULE
 ANTERIOR LIMB , between the lentiform
nucleus and the head of the caudate nucleus
 GENU.
 POSTERIOR LIMB , between the lentiform
nucleus and the thalamus.
 RETROLENTIFORM PART , behind the
lentiform nucleus and lateral to the thalamus
 SUBLENTIFORM PART (auditory radiation )
 THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
 The limbic lobe, it includes the cingulate gyrus
, parahippocampal gyrus. The hippocampus, is
portion of the parahippocampus.
 Dentate gyrus
 Amygdala.
 Septal nuclei.
 The mammillary bodies of the hipothalamus
 THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
 The anterior nucleus and the medial nucleus of the
thalamus.
 The olfactory bulbs.

 The fornix, stria terminalis, stria medullaris, medial

forebrain bundle and mammilothalamic tract

The emotional brain plays a primary role in a
Range of emotions.
The hippocampus, togetrher with other part of the
cerebrum, functions in memory
 CEREBRAL CORTEX
 Specific types of sensory,motor, and integrative
signals are processed in certain regions of the cerebral
cortex.
 Generally, sensory area receive sensory information
and are involved in perception, the conscious
awareness of sensation.
 Motor area, initiate movement.
 Association area, deal with more complex integrative
functions such as memory,emotions,reasoning, will,
judgement, personality traits, and intelligence.
 SENSORY AREA
 The primary somatosensory area ( areas 1, 2
and 3 ). Receives nerve impulses for touch,
proprioception, pain, tickle and temperature.
 The primary visual area ( area 17 ). Receives
visual information and involved in visual
perception.
 The primary auditory area ( area 41 and 42 ) .
Receives information for sound and is
involved in auditory perception.
 SENSORY AREA

 The primary gustatory area ( area 43 ).

Receives impulses for taste and is involved in
gustatory perception.
 The primary olfactory area ( area 28 ).
Receives impulses for smell and is involved in
olfactory perception.
 MOTOR AREAS
 Primary motor area ( area 4 ),controls voluntary
contractions of specific muscles or group of muscles.
 Broca‘s speech area ( area 44 and 45 ), involved in
the articulation of speech. In most people, Broca‘s
speech area is localized in the left cerebral
hemisphere. Neural circuit established between
Broca‘s speech area, the premotor area, and primary
motor area avtivate muscles of the larynx, pharynx
and mouth and breathing muscles
 ASSOCIATION AREA
 The somatosensory association area ( area 5
and 7 ). This area permits to determine the
exact shape and texture of an object without
looking at it, to determine the orientation of
one object with respect to another as they are
felt, and to sense the relationship of one body
part to another. The storage of memories of
past sensory experiences, enabling to compare
current sensations with previous experiences
 ASSOCIATION AREA
 The prefrontal cortex ( frontal asociation area )
area 9, 10, 11 and 12.
Concerned with the makeup of person‘s
personality, intellect, complex learning
abilities, recall of information, initiative,
judgement, foresight, reasoning, conscience,
intuition, mood, planning for the future and
development of abstract ideas.
 ASSOCIATION AREA
 The visual association area ( area 18 and 19 )
It relates present and past visual experiences
and is essential for recognizing and evaluating
what is seen.
 The auditory association area ( area 22 ).
Allow to recognize a particular sound.
 Wernicke‘s ( posterior language ) . ( area 22
and possibly area 39 and 40 )
 ASSOCIATION AREA
 Wernicke‘s ( posterior labnguage ) area, ( area
22 and possibility area 39 and 40 ). A broad
region in the left temporal and parietal lobes,
interprets the meaning of speech by
recognizing spoken words. It is active as you
translate words into thoughts. The region in the
right hemosphere that correspod to Broca‘s
and Wernicke‘s area in the left hemisphere
also contribute toverbal communication by
adding emotional content
 ASSOCIATION AREA
 The common integrative area ( area 5, 7, 39
and 40 ). This area integrates sensory
interpretations from the association area and
impulses from other area, allowing the
formation of thoughts based on a variety of
sensory input. It the transmits signals to other
parts of the brain for the appropriate response
to the sensory signals it has interpreted.
 ASSOCIATION AREA
 The premotor area ( area 6 )
Premotor area deals with learned motor activities of
complex and sequensial nature. It generates nerve
impul that cause specific group of muscles to contract
in a specific sequence, as when you write your name.
The premotor area also serves as a memory bank for
such movements.
 The frontal eye field area ( area 8 ). It controls
voluntary scanning movement of the eyes.
 APHASIA
 FLUENT APHASI
Damage to Wernicke‘s area , the common integrative
area, or auditory association, chracterized by faulty
understanding of spoken or writen words. People may
fluently produce strings of words that have no
meaning.
 NONFLUENT APHASIA
Damage to Broca‘s speech area, an inability to
properly articulate or form words.People know what
they wish to say, but cannot speak.