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Motion
Forces
Energy
1
First
Dimensions
Units
Precision
Coordinate Systems
Vectors
Kinematics
Motion Variables
Constant Acceleration
2
Dimensions
T
2
3
Units
We might measure the length of an (American) football field with a meter stick and a
yard stick. We’d get two different numerical values, but obviously there is one field
with one length. We’d say that 100 yards 91.44 meters. In other words,
100 yards
1.0
91.44 meters
A third rule is, the exercises and problems in the textbook assume there are 3
significant digits. Therefore, we never include more than 3 significant digits in
our numerical results, no matter that the calculator displays 8 or 10 or more.
6
The uncertainty in a numerical value may be expressed in terms of a tolerance, as
23.273 0.005
Alternatively, the uncertainty can be shown in scientific notation simply by the number
of digits displayed in the mantissa.
9
Vectors
Vx
a
aˆ a
A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1. E.g., a , where is the
magnitude of the vector a . Often, the magnitude of a vector is indicated by
the letter without the arrow on top: a a .
A A
11
An arbitrary vector can be written as a sum of the basis
set unit vectors.
A Axî Ay ˆj Az k̂
Direction cosines
Ax
cos
A
Ay
cos
A
Az
cos
A
emweb.unl.edu
12
Adding vectors
The sum of two vectors is also a vector.
A B C
Drawn to scale.
Ax Bx C x
Ay B y C y
Az Bz C z
C C x î C y ˆj C z k̂
A vector may be multiplied by a scalar. This affects the magnitude of the vector, but
does not affect its direction. The exception to this rule is multiplication by –1. That
leaves the magnitude unchanged, but reverses the direction.
13
Vector Products
scalar (or dot) product—result is a scalar; the operation
is symbolized by a dot.
A B AB cos Ax Bx Ay By Az Bz
The angle is the angle from A to B .
Note: A B B A and A B C A B A C .
iˆ ˆj kˆ
C A B Ax Ay Az iˆAy Bz By Az ˆj Ax Bz Bx Az kˆAx By Bx Ay
Bx By Bz
14
Kinematics
15
Motion Variables
r
The displacement vector, , The average velocity during the time
r
points from the origin to the interval t is defined to be v .
t
present location of the particle. It’s the time-rate-of-change in the
If a particle is at 1 at time t t1
r displacement. In terms of vector
and at 2 at some later time t t 2,
r components, we’d write
x y z
then we say the change in v x , v y , v z .
t t t
displacement is r r2 r1 .
Likewise, the elapsed time or The instantaneous velocity is defined to be
time interval is t t 2 t1 .
r dr
v lim
t 0 t dt .
Similarly, the average
acceleration is a v v2 v1 .
t t 2 t1
The instantaneous acceleration is
a lim
t 0
v dv
t
dt
. t, r , v , a
16
Constant Acceleration
v x v x 2 v x1 x x2 x1
a x vx
If ax is constant, then also
t t 2 t1 t t 2 t1 vx 2 vx1
vx
v x 2 v x1 a x t 2 t1
.
x2 x1 vx t 2 t1
2
vx 2 vx1 x2 x1
t2 t1 x2 x1 2 x2 x1
vx and
vx v x 2 vx1 2 t 2 t1
vx 2 vx1 vx22 vx21 vx 2 vx1 t vx1 a x t 2 t1 vx1
ax x2 x1 2 t1 x1 t2 t1
2
x2 x1 2x2 x1 2 2
vx 2 v x1 x2 x1 vx1 t 2 t1 a x t 2 t1
1 2
Commonly,
t1 0, t2 t , x1 xo , x2 x, vx1 vxo , vx 2 vx
We have four equations that each relate three of the motion variables.
17
Space-time
18
time, t acceleration, ax
(seconds) (m/s2)
Example: a train traveling on a straight and level track
0 - 10 2
starting from rest; ends at rest.
10 – 40 0
40 - ? -4
2 2
vx 2 vx1 20 m/s since ax 0
Segment 3: For this segment, we know x2, vx2, vx3, and ax, but not t .
What are the height of the sandbag and its velocity as functions of
time? 1 m 1 m 2
y y o v yo t a y t 20m 5 t 9.8 2 t
2
2 s 2 s
m m
v y v yo a y t 5 9.8 2 t
s s Free Fall!
What is the y-component of the
sandbag’s velocity when it hits the
ground?
v y2 v yo
2
2 a y y yo
v y2 v yo
2 2
2a y y y0 5 m/s 2 9.8 m/s 2 0 m 20 m 417 m 2 / s 2
v y 417 m 2 / s 2 20.4 m/s. (We know it' s going down.)
20
How long does that take?
1
y yo v yo t a y t 2
2
0 m 20 m 5 m/s t
1
2
9.8 m/s 2 t 2
t
5 m/s 25 m 2 / s 2 4 4.9 m/s 2 20 m
5 20.42
s 2.59 s or - 1.57 s
9.8 m/s 2 9.8
21
Projectile Motion
ˆ m ˆ
a 0i 9.8 2 j
s
22
Vector equations: 1 2
r ro vot a t v vo a t
2
x xo vxot
Notice:
1 2 1 The y-
y yo v yot a y t yo v yot ( g ) t 2
2 2 component
of a is
v x v xo a x t v xo ay = -g.
v y v yo a y t v yo ( g ) t
23
Example:
How long does it take to reach
maximum height, ymax?
At maximum height, vy = 0 m/s
v y v yo a y t
v y v yo 0 m/s 40 m/s sin53 o
t 3.26 s
ay 9.8 m/s
v y2 v yo2 2a y y yo
y yo
v y2 v yo2
0m
2 2
0 m /s 40 m/s sin53
o 2
52 .1 m
2a y
2 9.8 m/s 2
24
When is the projectile
at y = 25m?
1 2
y yo v yo t a y t
2
a y t v yo t yo y 0
1 2
2
2v yo 2 yo y
t
2
t 0
ay ay
t 2 6.52 s t 5.10 s 2 0 s 2
(6.52 s) (6.52 s) 2 4 5.1 s 2
t 0.910 s and 5.61 s
2
25
What are the velocity
components then, at
t = 0.910 s and t = 5.61 s?
v x 24.1
0.910
v y 23.0
vx 24.1
5.61
v y 23.0
26
Example:
2
1
2
y yo v yo t a y t 0 m 0 m/s 3s 9.8 m/s 2 3s 44.1 m
1 2 2
28
29
Uniform Circular Motion
31
Let the origin be at the center of the
circle, as shown.
32
Consider two successive displacement and velocity vectors. r r2 r1
v v2 v1
By the definition of uniform circular motion, r r1 r2
v v1 v2
v
arad
t
In the limit as t 0 ,
v v & r r .
v r
.
Both are isosceles triangles, with the same angle.
v r
v 1 vr vr v 2
arad
t t r rt r
33
Second
Dynamics
Newton’s “Laws”
Energy
Momentum
Conservation
34
Dynamics
35
Newton’s “Laws” of Motion
36
37
A force is an external influence that changes the motion of an object,
or of a system of objects.
38
Fundamental concepts:
39
Two of the attributes of matter are
i) resists changes in its motion—matter has inertia, and
ii) a force acts between any two pieces of matter—material objects or particles
exert forces on each other.
The quantitative measure of inertia is called the inertial mass of a particle.
Imagine two particles exerting equal and opposite forces on each other.
We observe their accelerations.
a2 m1
a1 m2
dp
We write Newton’s 2nd “Law”
in mathematical form: F dt
mv
The quantity p called the momentum.
2
v
1
c2 40
Classical assumptions:
i) time is independent of space and is absolute.
ii) 3-d space is Euclidian—”flat.”
41
42
Equilibrium
Should the vector sum of all forces acting on an object be equal to zero, then
dp
0 and the object is said to be in
dt
Static equilibrium p0
Dynamic equilibrium p0
43
Isolated body diagram(s)
An isolated body diagram is a sketch of the object only, with arrows indicating each
force acting only on that object.
44
Action & Reaction
N and N form an action - reaction pair.
W and N are not an action - reaction pair.
N N N W 0
45
Newton’s Universal “Law” of Gravitation
M 1M 2
Any two objects exert gravitational Fg 12 G 2
rˆ
forces on each other, equal in r12
magnitude and opposite in direction.
r̂
Take care with the directions. The unit vector points from M1 to M2.
The gravitational force on M2 is in the r̂ direction, toward M1.
46
Gravitational Field
M1
g G 2 r̂
r
An object of mass M2 located at r experiences a gravitational force.
M 1M 2
Fg M 2 g G 2
r̂
r
M 1M 2
Fg G 2
r̂ M 2 g
In the context of the 2nd “Law” r
The acceleration due to gravity is M1
ar a g G 2
r
47
M1 ME m
Near the Earth’s surface, a g G G 9 .8
r122 RE2 s2
Near the surface of another body, such as the Moon or Mars, the
acceleration due to gravity is different, not 9.8 m/s2.
48
Weight
Fg mg
F y N Fg 0 N Fg
49
Suppose the object is not in equilibrium.
F y N Fg mA
N mA Fg
N mA mg
50
Friction
N mg F sin 30 o a x
1
m
F cos 30 o mg F sin 30 o
51
Example: Two objects
N1 y W1 y F f 1 y Ma1 y N1 Mg 0 0
F f 1 1 N 1
Fy N 2 y W2 y F f 2 y R f 1 y R1 y ma2 y Fy N 2 mg 0 0 N1 0
52
Cords & Tension
T1 mg
2T2 T1 W2 Ma2
T W ma 2T2 T1 Mg 0 T2
1
T1 Mg 1 m M g
2 2
T y W y ma y T mg ma y 0 T mg
53
Example:
F W Tleft Tright ma
mg
Wy Tlefty Trighty 0 mg T sin T sin 0 T
2 sin
54
Pulleys
Apply Newton’s T1 W p
W p T2 T2 T1 0 T2
2nd “Law” to the 2
pulley and to the
hanging mass. T1 Mg 0 T1 Mg
55
Case Studies in Applying Newton’s 2nd “Law.”
Circular motion
Inclined plane
Restoring forces—spring & pendulum
Systems of objects
56
57
Circular Motion
ferris wheel
Tr Wr mar Tt Wt mat
v2 Tt mg sin mat
Tr mg cos m
r
180o 0o
v2
Tr mg( 1 ) m
r 58
driving ‘round a curve
v2
N x Wx F fx max N sin 0 F f cos mar N sin s N cos m
R
example
mg s 0, R 50m, v 13.4 m/s
N y Wy F fy may N cos mg F f sin 0 N
cos s sin
mg
sin 0 m v2
cos 0 R
sin s cos
2
mg
m
v sin
v 2
13.4 m/s 2
Universal “Law” of Mm
Gravitation Fg G
r2
ma
F
Orbital speed GM
v
r
60
Inclined Plane
N W ma
N x Wx max 0 Wx max
N y Wy ma y N Wy ma y 0
Wx W sin mg sin
W y W cos mg cos
N W F ma
N x Wx Fx max 0 Wx F max mg sin F max
N y Wy Fy may N Wy 0 ma y N mg cos 0
61
Restoring Force
Hooke’s “Law”
linear restoring force
Fs k o Fs k x xo
F ma
Fs W ma
Fs mg 0
k o mg 0
mg Typically, we place the origin at the
o resting length of the spring.
k
62
Pendulum
F ma
T W ma
63
System of Objects
T W1 m1a1 T m1 g m1a1
T N W2 m2 a2
Tx N x Wx m2 a2 x T 0 W2 sin m2 a2 x
a1
1
W2 sin m1 g a1 a1 1 m2 g sin m1 g
m2 m1 m2 64
“Atwood’s Machine”
T2 W2 m2 a2 T2 m2 g m2 a2
T1 W1 m1a1 T1 m1 g m1a1
a1 a2 a T1 T2 T
T m1 g m1a
T m2 g m2 a
m2 m1
a g
m2 m1
m2 m1 2m1m2
T m1a m1 g m1 g m1 g g
m2 m1 m2 m1
65
Reference Frames
r R r r ut r r r ut
F
ma
F ma
T W ma 0 T W ma
mg mg mA
68
Energy
Work
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy
69
Physical Work
2
W F ds
1
x2 y2 z2
W Fx dx Fy dy Fz dz
x1 y1 z1
F L M L
2
T
dimensions 2 The SI unit of work is the Joule (J).
m2
1 J 1 kg 2
s
70
constant force
W F s Fs cos
W Ff s Ff s cos180o Ff s
71
force varies with position
dW F ds Fx dx
Wnet Fx x
x2
W F x dx
x1
x2
k 2
x2 x2
W Fdx kxdx x x1 x2
k 2 k 2
x1 x1 2 x1 2 2
72
Power
Power is the rate at which work is done. If W is the work done during an elapsed time,
t , then the average power during that interval is W
P F v
t
J
The SI unit for power is the Watt: 1W 1 . A kilowatt is 1000 Watts.
s
73
Kinetic Energy
W Fx x m
vx
t
v v v 1
1 1
x m x 2 x 1x t m v22x v12x mv22x mv12x
t 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
Work-Energy Theorem W mv2 x mv1x K
2 2
1 2
Kinetic energy K mv
2
74
Examples:
Wg Fg r Fgx x Fgy y 0 mgy
1 2 1 2
Wg mg y K mv mvo
2 2
2 1 2
v mgy mvo
m 2
Keep in mind: y y yo
Energy is a scalar; it has no directional
information.
75
Every force acting
does some work.
Wg Mg x xo sin
W f F f x xo K N x xo
WN N x xo cos 90 o 0
WT T x xo cos 0 o T x xo
W Wg W f WN WT
1 2 1 2
W K mv mvo
2 2
76
Potential Energy
WC Fx dx Fy dy Fz dz
1
The potential energy function is defined
thusly: x1 y1 z1
WC U
For x-components
x2
To derive the potential energy WC Fx dx U U 2 U 1
function for a specified force, we x1
d 1 2
For a spring: Fx kx kx
dx 2
78
WC U
Spring:
1 2 1 2
x x x
1 2
WC Fx dx F cos180 dx kxdx kx k 0 kx
0
0 0 0 2 2 2
1 2
U s kx
2
79
Gravity:
y2 y2
U g mgy
80
Mechanical Energy
E K U
Wtotal Wother Wc K
Wtotal Wother U K
Wother K U E
E Wother 0
81
Gravity and spring restoring forces are conservative. Friction is
non-conservative.
82
Near the Earth’s surface,
K 2 U 2 K1 U 1
1 2 1 2
mv2 mgy2 mv1 mgy1
2 2
Spring
K 2 U 2 K1 U 1
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mv2 kx2 mv1 kx1
2 2 2 2
83
Recall the “Law” of Gravitation
Gm1m2 11 N m2
G 6.67 10
Fg kg 2
r2
r
12
m1
m2
Gm1m2
F12
r122
GM earthm GM earth
Fg 2
mg g 2
Rearth Rearth
84
Gravitational potential energy
Wg Fg dr 2
dr U (r )
r1 r1
r r2 r1
Gm1m2
U (r )
r Notice that we are setting U = 0 at r = ∞.
Let’s take a closer look at our (+/-) signs. The force is in the –r direction. The displacement is in the +r
direction, and r is always (+). The anti-derivative gives a (-) sign. The W is negative change in U.
Hence, U is (-).
85
Escape from Earth
Define “escape”
86
Impulse & Momentum
In general J p Fdt
Conservati on of momentum, if F 0, then p 0.
87
A ball bounces straight off a wall.
p x mvx 2 mvx1
Let’s say that m = 0.5 kg, vx1 = 40 m/s, and vx2 = -20 m/s.
Then the change in momentum is
m m kg m
p x mvx 2 mvx1 0.5 kg - 20 40 30
s s s
This is the impulse on the ball! The ball exerts an equal and opposite impulse
on the wall. If the impact lasts t 0.01 s , then the average force on the wall is
1 1 kg m
Fx p x 30 3000 N
t 0.01 s s
88
One dimensional elastic collision
p1 p2
mAv A1 mB vB1 mAv A2 mB vB 2
K1 K 2
1 1 1 1
mAv A21 mB vB21 mAv A2 2 mB vB2 2
2 2 2 2
89
Two
dimensional
elastic
collision
p1 p2
m Av Ax1 mB vBx1 m Av Ax 2 mB vBx 2
m Av Ay1 mB vBy1 m Av Ay 2 mB vBy 2
K1 K 2
1 1 1 1
m Av A21 mB vB21 m Av A2 2 mB vB2 2
2 2 2 2
90
“Perfectly” inelastic collision
p1 p2
m Av Ax1 mB vBx1 m A mB v x 2
m Av Ay1 mB vBy1 m A mB v y 2
p1 p2
mA mB v1 mAv A2 mB vB 2
91
92
Center of Mass
rcm
ii
m r
mi
d
vcm rcm
ii
m v
dt mi
vcm mi mi vi P
The total momentum of a system of particles is equal to the total mass of the system
times the velocity of the center of mass.
P Mvcm
If no net external force acts on any part of the system, then P
is constant, and so is v .
cm
The individual parts of the system may exert forces on each other, but those
do not affect the motion of the center of mass.
93
On the other hand, if one or more external forces acts on the system, then
vcm is not constant.
The sum of all forces acting on all parts of the system is
ext int i i
F F F m a Ma cm
Because of Newton’s 3rd “Law”, Fint . 0
Fext Macm
94
Rockets & Rain Drops
Suppose the total mass of a moving object is not constant.
net external force acting on an object (such as a rocket or a rain drop)
Say the
is Fext .
Assume that during a short time interval, t , the Fext is approximately constant.
Then the impulse delivered to the mass, m, is ext t p
F .
Further suppose that during that interval t , the mass changes by an amount m .
p mv2 mv2 m mv1
p mv2 v1 mv2 v1
We may as well just let m + Δm
be m at this point.
v v2 v1 V v2 v2
Fext t m mv mV
p mv1 v v1 m V v
Fext t p mv mV
p mv mv mV
v m dv dm
p mv mv mV m m v mV Fext m
t t
V m
dt
V
dt
95
Recap:
v is the velocity of the object (rocket or rain drop),
97
Rotation
Rigid body
Arc length, radians
There are 2 radians in 360o.
s
s r or in radians
r
name definition
angular displacement,
98
Equations of rotational motion
1
o o t t 2
2
o t
2 o2 2 o
o
s r
2
vt r
at r
vt2
ar r 2
r
Example:
o 2 60 radians radians
t 3 s 20
t t t 3 s2 s2
o 0
234 (radians)
234 0 radians radians
108
radians 78
s t 3 s s
constant
o unknown
99
Moment of Inertia
I mi ri2
I r dm r dxdydz
2 2
Volume Volume
100
101
Rotational Dynamics
Angular kinetic energy & angular momentum
1 1 1
Kr
2
mi vi2 mi ri 2 2 I 2
2 2
torque
ˆj
dL d r p dp dr dp
î k̂
Lrp x y z r p r 0 r F
dt dt dt dt dt
mvx mvy mvz
dL
r F
dt
L Li ri pi i mi i mi i2 I
Rigid body:
dL d 102
I I
dt dt
103
Unwinding
Consider an ideal cord wound around a solid cylinder of
radius R = 0.5 m and mass M = 10 kg. The cylinder is
set on a horizontal axis and mass of m = 4 kg is hung
on the free end of the cord. What’s the torque
experienced by the cylinder and what’s the acceleration
downward of the mass, m?
a R TR 2 TR 2 2T
F y ma y I TR 0 a TR
R I I
0.5MR 2
M
T mg ma T m(a g ) 0 T m( g a)
2 m g a 1 m
F y 0 a
M
a
1
M
g 4.36 2
s
N Mg T 0 2m
I
T m g
1
g 21.8 N
a M
T R I 1
R 2m
a 1 a 1 m
a I I MR 2 10kg0.5m(4.36 2 ) 10.9 Nm
R 2 R 2 s
104
R
Roll down an incline
F ma
Mg sin f Mg sin N Ma x Now, if the ball is to roll without
slipping, what must be true?
N Mg cos 0 N Mg cos
The friction must be just right
a x g sin cos such that a
x
I (We' ll compute torques about the center of mass.) R
N g f I
1 1
Kinetic energy: K 2 Mv 2 I
2 2
2
0 0 f R MgR cos MR 2 2
5 1 12 v 1 1
No slipping. . . . K Mv 2 MR 2 Mv 2
5 g 2 25 R 2 5
cos 105
2 R
Gyroscope
Pulley
Lo Loiˆ
riˆ Mgkˆ 0iˆ Nkˆ
L
t
L
rMgˆj
t 106
107
108
Static Equilibrium
Fx Tx Fgx Fbx 0 T g b 0
Fx T sin 60 o 0 4m
T 4m sin 67 o 20kg g 4m sin 53o 10kg g sin 53o 0
2
Fy T y Fgy Fby 0
3.68m T 626.13Nm 156.53Nm 0
Fy T cos 60 20kg g 10kg g 0
o
T 213N
109
Oscillation
1 2 f radians/s
T
f
y A sin t
A cos t
dy
v
dt
2 A sin t
dv
a
dt F ma
ky m 2 y
For an object bouncing on a spring:
k
m 110
Mechanical energy of an
oscillator
2 2 2
111
pendulum
mg sin I m 2
mg sin m 2
g
sin
114
115
Wave Motion
x t
y x, t Af
T
116
Harmonic wave – a wave of a particular shape that repeats
itself. It’s periodic.
x t x 2
y x, t A cos 2 A cos 2f t
k
T c
2f
yx, t A coskx t
“Standing waves”
y x, t y1 x, t y 2 x, t
y x, t A coskx t A coskx t
cosa b cos a cos b sin a sin b
y x, t 2 A sin kxsin t
118
Stretched string
F
c
m
L
Only vibrations that “fit” in the length of the string will persist. This is an example of
resonance. Every physical system has “natural” modes at which it will vibrate. The
natural modes depend on the physical properties of the system: mass, elasticity, size.
We saw this same phenomenon with the spring and the pendulum.
119
“Beats”
In this case, two waves are traveling in the same direction,
but with slightly different frequencies.
y y1 y 2
y Acos2 f1t cos2 f 2 t
f f2 f f2
y 2 A cos 2 1 t cos 2 1 t
2 2
120
Spectrum
2
y Ai cos x 2f i t
i i
121
.
Energy
While the medium in which the wave propagates does not flow from one place to another, the wave disturbance nonetheless carries energy
from one place to another. Each mass element, dm, of the medium executes simple harmonic motion. K is the restoring force constant.
It’s related to the frequency by 1 1
K E Ky 2 dmv 2
dm 2 2
E dm 2 A 2 cos 2 kx t dmA2 2 sin 2 kx t
1 1
2 2
E dm 2 A 2 cos 2 kx t sin 2 kx t
1
2
Over one cycle, the cosine-squared and sine-squared average to 1
2
. The total mass of the medium spanning one cycle (or one wavelength) is
, where is the mass per unit length of the medium.
.The energy flux is the power transported through the medium by the wave:
P fE 2 2 c f 2 A 2
The intensity is the power pr unit area through which the power is transported:
P
I 2 2 c f 2 A 2 , were is the mass per unit volume.
a
122
Pressure waves--Sound
123
124
The “Laws” of Thermodynamics
125