Chapter 41

Animal
Reproductive
Systems

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

41.1 Assisted Reproduction
• In vitro fertilization (IVF)
– Assisted reproduction method where egg and
sperm are combined outside the body
– Woman given hormones to cause production of
multiple eggs
• Mature eggs removed from her body
• Eggs combined with partner’s or donor’s sperm
– After fertilization, zygote undergoes mitotic
divisions, forming a ball of cells (blastocyst)
• Placed in woman’s uterus to develop to term

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Other Types of Assisted Reproduction
• First child conceived by IVF born in 1978
– Much concern at the time by public and some
scientists
– Since then, IVF is in wide use worldwide
• Other reproduction technologies
– Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
– Using donated eggs
– Using a surrogate mother
– “Bank” eggs – freeze for later use
• Approved in 2012 by the FDA
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
41.2 Modes of Animal Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction
– A single individual produces offspring
– All offspring are genetic replicas of the parent
• Unless a mutation occurs
• Mechanisms of asexual reproduction
– Budding
• Offspring grows on the body of its parent
– Fragmentation
• Piece of the parent breaks off and develops into a
new animal

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
• Mechanisms of asexual reproduction
(cont’d.)
– Transverse fission
• Worm divides in two, and the two pieces regrow the
missing body parts
– Parthenogenesis
• Female offspring develop from unfertilized eggs
• Sexual reproduction
– Gametes of two parents combine at fertilization

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Sexual Reproduction
• Egg (female gamete) and male gamete
(sperm) each receive a different
combination of a parent’s alleles
– When combined, offspring has different genetic
makeup than either parent
• Sexual reproduction advantageous in a
changing environment
– New combinations of alleles may be well-suited
to environmental changes
– Asexual reproduction best in stable environment
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
Variations on Sexual Reproduction
• Hermaphrodites
– Sexually reproducing animals that can make
both eggs and sperm
– Example: tapeworms and some roundworms
can fertilize themselves
• Earthworms, land snails and slugs require a partner
– Some fishes switch from one sex to another
over the course of a lifetime
• Overwhelming majority of vertebrates have
separate sexes that are fixed for life
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
 Examples of Animals Reproducing

A Asexual reproduction in a B Sexual reproduction in hamlets, C Sexual reproduction in elephants. The male is inserting his
hydra. A new individual (left) is which are simultaneous hermaphro- penis into the female. Eggs will be fertilized and the offspring will
budding from its parent. dites. Each fish lays eggs and also develop inside the mother ’ s body, nourished by nutrients
fertilizes its partner’s eggs. delivered by her bloodstream.

(A) Biophoto Associates/Science Source; (B) Roger Klein/WaterF/Age Fotostock; (C) © Gabriela Staebler Wildlife Photography

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

External and Internal Fertilization
• External fertilization
– Occurs in aquatic invertebrates, bony fishes,
and amphibians
• Eggs and sperm released into the water, where
fertilization occurs
• Internal fertilization
– Sperm fertilize an egg inside the female’s body
– Occurs in cartilaginous fishes and most land
animals
– Female may lay eggs or retain inside the body
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
Nourishing the Developing Embryo
• Developing animal requires nutrients
– Embryos of most animals nourished by yolk
• Thick fluid rich in protein and lipids
• Amount of yolk increases with time to hatch
– Placental mammals produce yolkless eggs
• Nourish embryos through a placenta
• Placenta facilitates the exchange of substances
between maternal and embryonic bloodstreams
– Placenta-like organs developed independently
in live-bearing fishes and one group of live-
bearing lizards
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
 A Beetle depositing fertilized eggs on a leaf. Yolk in the eggs
provides the nutrients that sustain development of the young.

B Snake (adder) giving birth to young that recently hatched in her

body. The young were nourished by egg yolk, not by their mother.

(A) © Nature Production/naturepl.com;

C An elk examines her newborn calf. The placenta, the organ that (B) © Tony Phelps/naturepl.com;
allowed nutrients from her blood to diffuse into the calf’s blood, is (C) NPS Yellowstone/Becky Wyman.
visible at the left. It is expelled at birth.

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

41.3 Organs of Sexual Reproduction
• Gonads
– Specialized reproductive organs where gametes
develop
– Eggs produced in ovaries
– Sperm produced in testes
– Number, structure, and location varies among
animal groups
• Ovaries always in abdominal cavity
• Testes can be in abdominal cavity or descended in a
pouch

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Gamete Development
• Many animals reproduce only during specific
breeding period
– Gonads shrink or disappear in some species
when not in use
• Gametes conveyed in a system of ducts
– In most animals and all vertebrates
• Eggs and sperm develop from diploid germ
cells
– Chromosome number halved by meiosis

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

How Gametes Form
• Spermatogenesis
– Process of forming sperm
• Oogenesis
– Process of forming eggs
• Figure 41.6 on next slide illustrates both
processes

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

 A Spermatogenesis (sperm B Oogenesis (egg, or ovum
formation) formation)

Spermatogonium Oogonium
(2n) (2n)

1 1
mitosis mitosis

Primary Primary
spermatocyte oocyte
(2n) (2n)
2
meiosis I,
2 unequal
meiosis I, cytoplasmic
cytoplasmic division
Secondary Secondar polar
division
spermatocyte yoocyte (n) body
(n)
3 3
meiosis II, meiosis II, unequal cytoplasmic
cytoplasmic division
division
polar
bodies
Spermatid Ovum
(n) (n)

4 4
Sperm
(n)

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved. © 2016 Cengage Learning

41.4 Reproductive System of Human
Females
• Female ovaries lie deep in pelvic cavity
– About the size and shape of almonds
– Produce and release oocytes
– Secrete sex hormones estrogen and
progesterone
• Estrogens
– Trigger development of female secondary
sexual characteristics
– Maintain lining of reproductive tract

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Oviducts
• Progesterone
– Thickens lining of reproductive tract in
preparation for pregnancy
• Oviduct
– Hollow tube connecting ovary to uterus
– Also known as Fallopian tube
– Cilia in the oviduct lining propel the oocyte
along the length of the tube
– Fertilization usually occurs in the oviduct

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

 pelvic clitoris
girdle uterus
labia minora urethra
urinary ovary vagina labia
bladder
majora anus
vagina

A Location of female reproductive C External sex organs, collectively referred to as the vulva.
organs.
Ovary One of two female gonads.
Makes eggs and secretes female sex
hormones (estrogens and progesterone).

Oviduct One of a pair of ducts through

which oocy tes ar e propelled f rom an ovary to
the uterus; usual site of fertilization

Uterus Womb, chamber in which an embryo

develops. Includes myometrium (smooth mus-
cle layer) and endometrium (epithelial lining).
Narrowed lower portion (the cervix secretes
mucus into the vagina.
urinary
bladder opening
Vagina Organ of sexual inter course; birth canal. of cervix

Clitoris Highly sensitive erectile organ. Only the urethra

tip is exter nally visible; bulk of the organ extends
internally on either side of the vagina.
Labium minus One of a pair of inner skin folds
(the labia minora) . anus

Labium majus One of a pair of fatty outer skin vestibular

folds (the labia majora). gland

B Human female reproductive organs, shown in longitudinal

section.

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

The Uterus
• Uterus
– Hollow, pear shaped organ
– Located above the urinary bladder and at the
end of the oviducts
– Wall made of a thick layer of smooth muscle
– Lowest portion called cervix
• Vagina
– Extends from the cervix to the body opening

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Egg Production and Release
• All production of oocytes occurs before birth
– Human females born with about 2 million
oocytes
– Oocytes begin maturing at puberty, one at a
time, in a 28 day cycle
– Figure 41.8 on next slide illustrates this cycle

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Ovarian Cycle

follicle primary polar secondary secondary corpus

ovary cells oocyte body oocyte oocyte luteum

1 An ovary has many 2 A fluid-filled cavity 3 The primary oocyte 4 Ovulation. The mature 5 A corpus luteum 6 If pregnancy
immature follicles, each begins to form in the completes meiosis I follicle ruptures, releasing develops from follicle does not occur,
consisting of a primary follicle’s cell layer. and divides unequally, a secondary oocyte cells left behind after the corpus luteum
oocyte and surrounding forming a secondary coated with secreted ovulation. degenerates.
follicle cells. oocyte and a polar body. proteins and follicle cells.

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved. © 2016 Cengage Learning

41.5 Female Reproductive Cycles
• Menstrual cycle
– Approximately monthly changes in the uterus
– Day one of cycle begins menstruation
• Flow of bits of uterine lining and blood from the
uterus out of the vagina
– Hormones governing the cycle
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
– Cycle steps illustrated in Figure 41.9 on next
slide
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
 Cyclic changes in the concentrations of
hypothalamus
sex hormones govern female reproductive
GnRH
anterior pituitary
function.
FSH LH

A FSH and LH levels in blood

5

1
FSH
LH

FSH and LH stimulate LH surge

follicle maturation triggers ovulation

B Follicle changes in an ovary. corpus

6 luteum corpus luteum
2 follicle matures ovulation forms breaks down

corpus luteum
follicle secretes sec retes estrogens,
estrogens progesterone

C Estrogen and progesterone levels in blood

Progesterone
7
Estrogens

3
estrogens, 9
progeste rone,
,
cause uterine
lining to thicken
low estr ogen
8
D Changes in uterine lining

menstrual
flow
4

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Days of cycle
Follicular phase Luteal phase
© 2016 Cengage Learning
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
PMS and Menopause
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
– Recurrence of symptoms caused by cycle-
associated hormonal changes
– Symptoms include irritability, depression,
headaches, anxiety, and insomnia
• Menopause
– Occurs when all follicles in ovaries have been
released or have disintegrated as a result of
aging
• Menstrual cycles cease
• Occurs only in humans and two species of whales
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
41.6 Reproductive System of Human
Males
• Male gonads: testes, or testicles
– Produce sperm and make testosterone
– Testes enclosed in the scrotum, a pouch that
forms before birth
– Smooth muscles in the scrotum regulate
temperature by contracting or relaxing
• Sperm travel from the epididymis into the
vas deferens and into a short ejaculatory
duct
– Travel down the urethra to the body surface
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
The Penis
• Penis
– Male organ of intercourse
– Rounded head (the glans) at the end of a
narrower shaft
– Nerve endings make it highly sensitive to touch
– When male is not sexually excited, the foreskin
covers the penis
• Some cultures perform circumcision to remove the
foreskin

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Male Reproductive Process
• Penis contains three elongated cylinders of
spongy tissue
– During sexual excitement, blood flows into the
spongy tissue faster than it flows out
• Makes normally limp penis erect
• Ejaculation
– Rhythmic smooth muscle contractions propel
semen outside the body
• Semen is made of sperm and other gland secretions

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Male Reproductive System Organs
ejaculatory duct
prostate gland Exocrine One of a pair of ducts that
gland that contributes carry semen to the penis
fluid to semen
seminal vesicle
urinary One of a pair of exocrine
bladder glands that contribute
sugary fluid to semen

urethra Duct that conveys

semen out of the body bulbourethral gland
One of a pair of exocrine
glands that secrete mucus
into the urethra
penis Organ of intercourse
anus
vas deferens
One of a pair of long ducts that
carry sperm toward the penis

epididymis
One of a pair of ducts in which sperm
mature and are stored
scrotum

cylinders of urethra testis

spongy tissue One of a pair of gonads that make
sperm and secrete testosterone

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved. © 2016 Cengage Learning

Components of Semen
• Sperm makes up less than five percent of
semen volume
• Seminal vesicles
– Secrete fructose-rich fluid into the vasa
deferentia
• Sperm use the fructose as their energy source
• Prostate gland
– Alkaline secretions help raise pH of female
reproductive tract
• Make it more hospitable to sperm
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
Germ Cells to Sperm Cells
• Seminiferous tubules
– Located inside the testes
– Contain diploid male germ cells
– Contain large nurse cells that support
developing sperm
• Spermatogenesis governed by LH and FSH
• Newly-formed sperm cannot swim
– Moved along by smooth muscle contractions
– Sperm mature and become mobile as they
move through the epididymis
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
41.7 Bringing Gametes Together
• Increased activity of sympathetic nerves
– Raises heart and breathing rates in both
partners during intercourse
– Posterior pituitary increases oxytocin
• For males, intercourse requires an erection
– Ability to sustain erection peaks during late
teens
– Erectile dysfunction may occur as a male ages

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Hormonal Changes During Intercourse
• When a woman becomes sexually excited:
– Blood flow to the vaginal wall, labia, and clitoris
increases
– Cervix glands secrete mucus
– Labia glands produce a lubricating fluid
• Orgasm
– Endorphins flood the brain, evoking feelings of
pleasure
– In males, ejaculation usually accompanies
orgasm
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
The Sperm’s Journey
• Each sperm is a haploid cell with a head
containing DNA and enzymes
– Enzymes help sperm penetrate an oocyte
• Sperm take carbohydrates from the female
reproductive tract to fuel their movement
• Sperm must swim through canal in cervix
center
– Canal plugged with acidic mucus when
woman’s estrogen level is low
– As estrogen level rises, thin mucus forms
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
Fertilization
oviduct
Fertilization

zona
pellucida

ovary oocyte zona follicle

nucleus pellucida cell
Ovulation
uterus
haploid egg and
sperm nuclei
opening
of cervix
vagina

3 The sperm is drawn into the oocyte and

1 Fertilization most often occurs in
the oviduct. Many sperm travel
swiftly through the vaginal canal into
oviducts (blue arrows).
Inside an oviduct, the sperm
surround a secondary oocyte that
was released by ovulation.
the oocyte nucleus completes meiosis II.
Later, both paternal and maternal nuclear
membranes break down and chromosomes
become arranged on a bipolar spindle in
2 Enzymes released from the cap of each sperm clear a
preparation for the first mitotic division.
path through the zona pellucida. Binding of one sperm to the
membrane of the secondary oocyte causes
the oocyte to release substances that alter the zona pellucida
and prevent other sperm from binding.

#1–3 art, © 2016 Cengage Learning; #3 photo, Courtesy of Elizabeth Sanders, Women’s Specialty Center, Jackson, MS.

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Fertilization
• Typically only one sperm enters the oocyte
– After fertilization, oocyte secretes proteins that
prevent more sperm from binding to the zona
pellucida
• Chromosomes in the egg and sperm nuclei
– Become the genetic material of the new zygote
• Sperm also supplies a single centriole
– Helps organize for the first mitotic division

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

41.8 Contraception and Infertility
• Birth control options
– Abstinence
– Rhythm method
• Abstaining from sex during fertile period
– Withdrawal of the penis from the vagina prior to
ejaculation
– Surgical methods
– Physical and chemical barriers to stop sperm
from reaching the egg

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Tubal Pregnancy and Other Problems
• Tubal pregnancy
– Embryo implants in the oviduct
– Can be caused by scarring in the oviduct
• Uterine problems can interfere with the
embryo’s ability to implant
• Male infertility
– Too little sperm or abnormal sperm
– Sexually transmitted diseases can cause
blockages
– Problem with bladder-urethra valve
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
41.9 Sexually Transmitted Diseases
• STD: contagious disease that spreads
through sexual contact
– Women contract STDs more easily than men
– Women can infect offspring during childbirth
• Trichomoniasis
– Most common curable STD
– Untreated infection can cause infertility in both
sexes

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.

Bacterial STDs
• Chlamydia
– Small bacteria that live as intracellular parasites
– Can be cured with antibiotics
• Gonorrhea
– Causes yellow pus to ooze from the penis and
painful urination
– Infection can damage reproductive ducts and
cause infertility
– Treated with antibiotics
• Antibiotic-resistant strains becoming more common
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
Syphilis and Viral STDs
• Syphilis
– Caused by a spiral shaped bacterium
– Causes a flattened, painless ulcer at infection
site
– Left untreated, infection can become systemic
• Viral STDs
– HPV
– Genital herpes
• Infected infants have a 40 percent chance of death
– HIV/AIDS
© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.
Points to Ponder
• What propels sperm from their point of origin
to the opening where they exit the body?
• What mechanisms prevent the entry of more
than a single sperm into the egg?
• What events result in the production of
identical and fraternal twins?

© Cengage Learning 2016. All Rights Reserved.