Antennas

(Lecture # 6)
By
Dr Azhar Hasan

11/3/2018 1
Quote of the Day
• The third-rate mind is only happy when it is thinking with the
majority. The second-rate mind is only happy when it is thinking with
the minority. The first-rate mind is only happy when it is thinking

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Antenna
• A usually metallic device (as a rod or wire) for radiating or receiving
radio waves

• A means for radiating or receiving radio waves

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Importance of Antenna
• For wireless systems, the antenna is one of the most critical
components. A good design of antenna can relax system
requirements and improve overall system performance
(example of mobile phone).
• The first article of the first proceedings of IRE (Institute of Radio
Engineers) was on antennas

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Reciprocity
• In two-way communication, same antenna can be used for
transmission and reception with the use of suitable receiver
protection
• Principle of Reciprocity states that transmit and receive characteristics
of an antenna are identical
• Antennas are in general reciprocal devices, which can be used both as
transmitting and as receiving elements. This is how the antennas on
cellular phones and walkie-talkies operate.

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Transitional Structure
 An antenna is a transitional
structure between free-space
and a guiding device
 As antenna resides between
cable/waveguide and the
medium air, the main function
of antenna is to match
impedance of the medium with
the cable/wavegiude
impedance.

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How Antennas Radiate
• How does the
electromagnetic fields,
generated by the source and
contained and guided within
the transmission line and
antenna finally “detach” from
the antenna to form a free-
space wave?

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Analogy with Water Waves
• Once the disturbance is created in water, waves are
created which begin to travel outwardly.
• If the disturbance is removed the waves don’t stop or
extinguish but continue their course of travel.
• If disturbance persists, new waves are
continuously created which lag
in their travel behind the others.
• The same is true for EM waves
created by an electrical
disturbance. Electric charges
are required to excite the fields
but are not needed to sustain them
and may exist in their absence. This is in direct analogy
with water waves.
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Radiation
• Radiation is a disturbance in the electromagnetic fields that
propagates away from the source of the disturbance so that the total
power associated with the wave in a lossless medium is constant with
radial distance.
• This disturbance is created by a time-varying current source that has
an accelerated charge distribution associated with it.
• Antennas are designed to support charge oscillations.

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Conditions for Radiation
• If a charge is not moving, current is not
created and there is no radiation.
• If a charge is moving with a uniform
velocity:
• There is no radiation if the wire is straight,
and infinite in extent.
• There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent,
discontinuous, terminated or truncated.
• If charge is oscillating in time-motion, it
radiates even if the wire is straight.

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Radiation Mechanism

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Radiation Mechanism

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Antenna Performance Parameters
Radiation Pattern
• Angular variation of radiation around the antenna, including:
• Directive, single or multiple narrow beams
• Omni-directional
• Shaded main beam

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Antenna Performance Parameters
Directivity
• Ratio of power density in the direction of the pattern maximum to
the average power density at the same distance from the antenna.
Gain
• When the directivity is converted to decibels we call it the antenna
gain relative to an isotropic source (dBi).

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Antenna Performance Parameters
Polarization
• The figure traced out with time by the instantaneous electric field
vector associated with the radiation from an antenna when
transmitting. Antenna polarizations:
• Linear
• Circular
• Ellicptical

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Antenna Performance Parameters
Impedance
• Input impedance at the antenna terminals

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Antenna Performance Parameters
Bandwidth
• Range of frequencies over which important performance parameters
are acceptable

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Radiation Pattern
• A mathematical function or a
graphical representation of the
radiation properties of the
antenna as a function of space
coordinates

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Field and Power Patterns
• A trace of received electric
(magnetic) field at a constant
radius is called amplitude
field pattern

• A trace of received p0wer

density at a constant radius
is called amplitude power
pattern

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Practical Radiation Pattern
• Basic Lobes:
• Major lobe
• Minor lobes
• Side lobe  Side Lobe Level (SLL)
• Back lobe
• Beamwidth
• Half-power beamwidth
• First null beamwidth

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Field Regions of an Antenna

D2
R2  2


D3
R1  0.62


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Field Regions of an Antenna

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Radiation Power Density
• Power associated with EM wave is described by
Poynting vector
• Poynting vector is the time-rate
 ofEMenergy flow
per unit area in free space W  E  H
W is the instantaneous Poynting vector (W/m2)
E is the instantaneous Electric field intensity (V/m)
H is the instantaneous Magnetic field intensity (A/m)
• Power crossing over the entire closed surface
   
P   W  ds   W  nˆda
S S

P is instantaneous total power (W) More Details req?

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Radiation Power Density
• Time average Poynting vector
 1  *
Wav  Re E  H
2
 
• Average power radiated by the antenna or
radiated power P  W  ds  W  nˆda
rad 
S
rad 
S
av

Prad
1  *

  Re E  H  ds
2 S


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Radiation Power Density
• Total radiated power is power density (power radiated per unit area)
integrated over the entire spherical surface
  2 
Prad 
  W0  ds    aˆrW0 r  aˆr r 2 sin dd 
S 0 0

 4r 2W0
and the power density is

W m 
  Prad 
W0  aˆ rW0  aˆ r  2 
2

 4r 

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Radiation Intensity
• The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid
angle U  r 2Wrad
2 
Prad   Ud    U sin dd
 0 0

• For an isotropic source, U will be independent of

angles θ and φ
Prad   U 0 d  U 0  d  4U 0
 

Prad
U0 
4
where dΩ = element of solid angle = sinθdθdφ
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Directivity
• The ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the
antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions
U 4U
D 
U0 Prad
• If direction is not given, then the direction of maximum radiation
intensity implies
U max 4U max
Dmax  D0  
U0 Prad

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Antenna Efficiency
• Losses of an antenna:
• Reflection because of mismatch
• Conducting losses
• Dielectric losses

• The antenna efficiency e0=ereced

where
e0=total efficiency
er=reflection efficiency=(1-|G|2)
ec=conduction efficiency
ed=dielectric efficiency

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Losses

•conduction losses (due to finite conductivity of the metal that

forms the antenna)

•dielectric losses (due to conductivity of a dielectric material near

an antenna)

•impedance mismatch loss

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Gain
• The ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction to the radiation
intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the
antenna were radiated isotropically
4U
G
Pin
where Prad  ecd Pin
• Hence
 4U  ,  
G ,    ecd    ecd D ,  
 Prad 

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Learned so far
• Antenna Radiation Pattern
• Field Regions
• Radiation Power Density
• Radiation Power Intensity
• Directivity
• Gain

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Quote of the Day
• To the man who only has a hammer, everything he encounters begins
to look like a nail.

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Electromagnetic Fundamentals
Boundary Conditions
nˆ  H 2  H 1   J s
E 2  E1  nˆ  M s

where electric and magnetic surface currents Js and Ms flow on the

boundary between two homogeneous media with constitutive
parameters ε1, 1, σ1 and
ε2, 2, σ2
• The tangential components can be
written as H tan 2  H tan1  J s
Etan 2  Etan1  M s
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Electromagnetic Fundamentals
Boundary Conditions
nˆ  H 2  H 1   J s
E 2  E1  nˆ  M s

where electric and magnetic surface currents Js and Ms flow on the

boundary between two homogeneous media with constitutive
parameters ε1, 1, σ1 and
ε2, 2, σ2
• If one of the sides is a perfect conductor,
then H tan 2  J s
Etan 2  0
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The Magnetic Vector Potential
• The law of non-existence of magnetic monopole
 H  0
• From the vector calculus rule: “Divergence of a curl is always zero”
i.e.  A  0
• Hence, H    A  , where A is the (magnetic) vector potential

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The Electric Scalar Potential
  E   j H H    A 
• Using Faraday’s law and
it can be stated that
  E  j A  0
    0
• From the vector calculus rule: “Curl of a gradient is always zero” i.e.
• Hence, E  j A   , where Φ is the (electric) scalar potential

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Waves in general

• Wave is a function of ...

time and space

• One dimension scalar wave equation is

2E  2
E
u 2  0
2

t2
 z
• Say, E=A sin(ωt-βz)
• This has following characteristics
• Its time harmonic
• Amplitude of A = amplitude of E
• (ωt-βz) an represent the phase information
• ω and β are angular frequency and wave number, respectively
Simple case First

We will first focus on the lossless case, understand

the basic properties and then extend our results to
the general lossy case

40
UPW in lossless Media
Recall last lecture we had Maxwell Equations as
𝜕𝐻 ഥ
𝛻ത × 𝐸ത = −𝜇
𝜕𝑡
ത
𝛻ത × 𝐻
ഥ= ҧ𝐽 + 𝜖 𝜕𝐸
𝜕𝑡
To get the wave equation from the above MEs, the recipe is really simple…
 Take the curl of one and insert in the other one
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 ҧ
ത
𝛻 × 𝛻 ҧ × 𝐸 ҧ = −𝜇 𝛻 ҧ × 𝐻 ҧ = −𝜇 𝐽+
ҧ 𝜖
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
2
𝜕𝐽 ҧ 𝜕 𝐸ҧ
𝛻ത 2
𝛻.ҧ 𝐸 ҧ − 𝛻 ҧ 𝐸 ҧ = −𝜇 − 𝜖𝜇
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2

41
UPW in lossless Media
2
𝜕𝐽 ҧ 𝜕 𝐸ҧ
𝛻ത 2
𝛻.ҧ 𝐸 ҧ − 𝛻 ҧ 𝐸 ҧ = −𝜇 − 𝜖𝜇
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜌𝑣
ത ഥ ത ത
Now, 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 → 𝛻. 𝐸 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽 ҧ = 𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
ҧ + 𝜎𝐸ത
𝜖
Therefore,
𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜕2 𝐸ത
𝛻ത − 𝛻ത 2 𝐸ത = −𝜇 ҧ
𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝜎𝐸ത − 𝜖𝜇 2
𝜖 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
So far our assumption has only been that the material is simple.

42
UPW in lossless Media
𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜕2 𝐸ത
𝛻ത − 𝛻ത 2 𝐸ത = −𝜇 ҧ
𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝜎𝐸ത − 𝜖𝜇 2
𝜖 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Let us make two more reasonable assumption
ҧ
The medium is source free i.e. 𝐽𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 0, 𝜌𝑣 = 0
Medium is lossless i.e. 𝜎 = 0, we will see the lossy media later
Under these assumptions we have
𝜕2 𝐸ത 𝜕2 𝐸ത
−𝛻ത 𝐸ത = −𝜖𝜇 2 → 𝛻ത 𝐸ത − 𝜖𝜇 2 = 0
2 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
In a very similar way
𝜕2 𝐻ഥ
ത 2 ഥ
𝛻 𝐻 − 𝜇𝜖 2 = 0
𝜕𝑡

43
UPW in lossless Media
2ത
𝜕 𝐸
ത 2 ത
𝛻 𝐸 − 𝜖𝜇 2 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 ഥ
2𝐻
𝛻ത 𝐻
2 ഥ − 𝜇𝜖 =0
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 𝜕2
Then we saw in Phasors: → 𝑗𝜔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 → −𝜔2 , so in Phasors
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2

𝛻ത 2 𝐸ത + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝐸ത = 0 ⇒ 𝛻ത 2 𝐸ത + 𝑘 2 𝐸ത = 0
𝛻ത 2 𝐻
ഥ + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖𝐻 ഥ = 0 ⇒ 𝛻ത 2 𝐻 ഥ + 𝑘2𝐻 ഥ=0

𝜔 1 𝑐
where, 𝑘 = 𝜔 𝜇𝜖 = and 𝑣 = =
𝑣 𝜇𝜖 𝜇𝑟 𝜖𝑟

44
UPW in lossless Media
Recall we found the solution to these wave equations as, two waves
Forward and Backward
For Forward wave:
 In time domain
𝐸ത = 𝑥𝐸
ො 0+ cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧
𝐸0+
ഥ = 𝑦ො
𝐻 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧)
𝜂
 In frequency domain
𝐸ത = 𝑥𝐸
ො 0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧
𝐸0+ −𝑗𝑘𝑧
ഥ = 𝑦ො
𝐻 𝑒
𝜂
𝜇 𝜇𝑟
where, 𝜂 = = 𝜂0 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝜖 𝜖𝑟

45
UPW in lossless Media
For Backward wave:
In time domain
𝐸ത = 𝑥𝐸
ො 0−−cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑧
𝐸0
ഥ
𝐻 = −𝑦ො cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑧)
𝜂
In frequency domain
𝐸ത = 𝑥𝐸
ො 0−−𝑒 +𝑗𝑘𝑧
𝐸0 +𝑗𝑘𝑧
𝐻ഥ = −𝑦ො 𝑒
𝜂
Be careful about the –ve sign

46
Waves Propagation in Lossy Dielectric
A perfect, lossless or good dielectric is an ideal insulator

An Imperfect or lossy dielectric is partially conducting medium

Lossy Dielectric is a general case

Wave propagation in other types of media can be derived as special case

47
Waves Propagation in Lossy Dielectric
In a lossy media, now the Maxwell equations become
𝛻ത × 𝐸ത = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻
ഥ
𝛻ത × 𝐻ഥ = 𝜎𝐸ത + 𝑗𝜔𝜖 𝐸ത = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖 𝐸ത
To simplify the analysis, we define:
𝜎
𝜖𝑐 = 𝜖 − 𝑗 - Complex permittivity in F/m
𝜔
Now Ampere’s Law becomes:
𝛻ത × 𝐻
ഥ = 𝑗𝜔𝜖𝑐 𝐸,
ത and of course

𝛻ത × 𝐸ത = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻
ഥ

48
Waves Propagation in Lossy Dielectric
Notice that these equations have exactly the same form as in the lossless case if you replace 𝜖 with 𝜖𝑐
So now the wave equation will become
𝛻ത 2 𝐸ത + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖𝑐 𝐸ത = 0
𝛻ത 2 𝐻ഥ + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖𝑐 𝐻 ഥ=0
For the lossy case we can define a complex propagation constant 𝛾 with
𝛾 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖𝑐
𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝜖𝑐
𝜎
𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔 𝜇 𝜖 − 𝑗
𝜔
𝜎
𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔 𝜇𝜖 1 − 𝑗
𝜔𝜖

49
Waves Propagation in Lossy Dielectric
 And the wave equation becomes:
𝛻ത 2 𝐸ത − 𝛾 2 𝐸ത = 0 and 𝛻ത 2 𝐻
ഥ − 𝛾 2𝐻
ഥ=0
 As in the case of lossless media , we will gain have UPW, but now they will be
propagating with complex constant 𝛾 instead of 𝑘.
 For example a UPW linearly polarized in the x-direction and propagating in the +z-
direction will be written as:
𝐸ത = 𝑥𝐸
ො 0 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧
1
ഥ=
𝐻 𝑧Ƹ × 𝐸ത
𝜂𝑐
 Where it is V Imp to notice that now
1
𝜇 𝜇 𝜎 −2
𝜂𝑐 = = 1−𝑗
𝜖𝑐 𝜖 𝜔𝜖
 Is complex. This will give a phase difference b/w 𝐸ത and 𝐻
ഥ

50
Waves Propagation in Lossy Dielectric
In general, 𝛾 will have real and imaginary part. Thus if 𝛼 = 𝑅𝑒 𝛾 and 𝛽 =
𝐼𝑚(𝛾), then
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽
Where, 𝛼=attenuation constant (Np/m) and 𝛽 =Propagation constant (rad/m)
Which means that the wave of our previous example can be written as:
𝐸ത = 𝑥𝐸
ො 0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝛽′ 𝑠 role is similar to 𝑘 ′ 𝑠 role in the lossless cases. Thus now we have:
2𝜋 𝜔 2𝜋𝑓 1
𝛽= = = , and 𝑣 =
𝜆 𝑣 𝑣 𝜇𝜖

𝛼, on the other hand, show you how fast the wave is attenuated as it
propagates in the lossy medium. The amplitude of the wave is exponentially
decaying. However, the rate of this decay depends on the 𝛼

51
Wave Equations
• The vector wave equation is written as:
 2 A   2  A   J
and the scalar wave equation is written as:

      
2 2


• Decomposing the vector wave equation gives:
 2 Ax   2 Ax   J x
 2 Ay   2 Ay   J y
 2 Az   2 Az   J z
where    is the phase constant for a plane
wave
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Solution to the Fields
• For an arbitrary z-direction current density, the vector
potential is also z-directed.
• Taking an integral over the source volume v’ gives:
e  j R
Az   J z dv
v
4R
and the total solution is:
e  j R
A    J dv 
v
4R
1
• H    A  and E    H can now be used to find
j
the fields at a distance from the source, where J=0
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The Infinitesimal Dipole
z  
• along the z-axis
• Also called ideal dipole in the
sense that the current
remains uniform in both
magnitude and phase
over the radiating element, hence I is constant
• The volume integral for vector potential A is:
z 2 e  j R
A  zˆI  dv
 z 2 4R

Ie  jr
 zzˆ
11/3/2018
4r 54
The Infinitesimal Dipole
• The magnetic field is found as
H
1
  A    Az zˆ 
1
 
• Applying vector identity
H
1
Az  zˆ     zˆ   Az  zˆ 
1 1
  
 Ize  jr 
H     zˆ
 4r 
Iz  j 1   jr ˆ
H 
 r r 2  e sin 
• H can be resolved as 4 
11/3/2018 55
The Infinitesimal Dipole
• The electric field can be found
as

Iz  j  1 1 1   j r ˆ
E     e sin  
4  r  r 2 j r 3 
Iz   1 1 1   jr
   3
e cos  rˆ
2   r 2
j r 

11/3/2018 56
The Infinitesimal Dipole
2
• Using the relation      , E and H may be expressed as


Iz  1  e  jr ˆ
H j 1   r sin  
4  j r 

Iz  1 1  e  j r ˆ
E j 1   2
sin  
4  j  r   r   r
Iz  1 1  e  j r
   j 2  cos  rˆ
2  r r  r
11/3/2018 57
The Infinitesimal Dipole
• Since βr>>1 then 1/βr terms may be neglected
 jr
• Hence Iz e
H j sin  ˆ
4 r
Iz e  jr
E j sin  ˆ
4 r
1  Iz  sin 2 
2
1
• Further S  E  H     rˆ
*

2 2  4  r 2


• And Pf   S  d s  Iz 2
12

11/3/2018 58
Radiation Pattern of
Infinitesimal Dipole

11/3/2018 59
The Infinitesimal Dipole (Recap)
• The current in the dipole is uniform
 jr
• Hence Iz e
H j sin  ˆ
4 r
Iz e  jr
E j sin  ˆ
4 r
1  Iz  sin 2 
2
1
• Further S  E  H     rˆ
*

2 2  4  r 2


• And Pf   S  d s  Iz 2
12

11/3/2018 60
Radiation from Line Currents
• The vector potential form a line
source has only z-component
• Its vector potential can be
given as
e  jR
A   I z dz
4R
• Due to symmetry of the
source, the radiation fields
will not vary with φ.
• Hence calculations may be carried out in the yz-plane
for simplicity.
11/3/2018 61
The yz-plane Geometry
r2  y2  z2
z  r cos 
y  r sin 

R  yyˆ  z  z zˆ
R  y 2   z  z 
2

 
 r   2r cos  z   z 
2

2 12

 r  z  cos  
 z  sin 2   z  sin 2  cos 
2

3
 ...  r  z  cos 
2r 2r 2
11/3/2018 62
Radiation from Line Currents
e  j r  z cos  e  jr
Az   I z dz   I  z  e jz  cos
dz
4r 4r
1

1

H    A     Az sin ˆ  Az cos rˆ


1 1   
 ˆ  rA sin     A cos  
 r  r  
z z


 ˆ
1 e  j r
 4r

j sin   I z e jz cos dz 


1 
r 

cos   I z e jz cos dz  
11/3/2018 63
Radiation from Line Currents
H ˆ
1 e  jr
 4r
 
j sin   I z e   jz  cos
dz


1 
r 

cos   I ze jz cos dz 
• If βr >> 1, the second term may be neglected, Hence
j e  jr j
H  ˆ sin   I ze jz  cos
dz  sin Azˆ
 4r 
and E  j sin Azˆ

11/3/2018 64
Example:
Uniform Line Source
• A uniform line source, of length L, is having current distribution as:
 L
x  0, y  0, z  
I  z    o
I
2
0 elsewhere

11/3/2018 65
Example:
Uniform Line Source
e  j r L 2

jz  cos
Az   I e dz 
4r  L 2
0

e  jr  e j  L 2 cos  e  j  L 2 cos 

 I0  
4r  j cos  
I 0 Le  jr sin  L 2 cos  

4r  L 2 cos 
ˆ j I Le  j r
sin  L 2 cos   ˆ
E  j sin Az  0
sin  
4r  L 2 cos 

11/3/2018 66
Radiation Pattern
F  ,   
E
• The field pattern may be expressed as:
E ,max

• Hence for the last example sin  L 2  cos  

F    sin 
 L 2  cos 

• And the power pattern will be:

sin  L 2 cos  
2

P ,    F  ,    sin 
2

  L 2 cos  
11/3/2018 67
Input Impedance
• The impedance presented by the antenna at its terminals
• Mathematically, it can be expressed as
Z A  RA  jX A
• The input resistance RA occurs due to :
• Radiation
• Ohmic losses
• The input reactance XA represents power stored in the near field
antenna

11/3/2018 68
Radiation and Ohmic Resistances
• Average power dissipated in antenna
1
Pin  RA I A  P  P
2

2
1 1 1
RA I A  Rr I A  R I A
2 2 2

2 2 2

2P 2 P 2P  P 
 Rr  2
& R  2
 2
IA IA IA

11/3/2018 69
Radiation Efficiency
• The radiation efficiency can be given as:
P P
er  
Pin P  P
1 2
Rr I A
2 Rr Rr
er   
1 1
Rr I A  R I A
2 2 Rr  R RA
2 2

11/3/2018 70
Radiation Efficiency
• From previous discussions

P  z 2 I 2
12

• Hence the radiation resistance Rr, for an ideal (infinitesimal) dipole,

can be calculated as:
2 P 
Rr  2   z 2
I 6
2  z  2  z 
2 2

    80   
3      

11/3/2018 71
Radiation Efficiency
• The Ohmic resistance is given by
L
R  Rs
2a

where Rs is the surface resistance, given by


Rs 
2

• The radiation efficiency can be calculated from

Rr Rr
er  
Rr  R RA
11/3/2018 72
Radiation Efficiency of a
Small Dipole
Current distributions for an ideal dipole and a short
dipole

2  z  2  z   I A 
2 2 2

 40   I A Pshort  40    

2
Pideal
       2
2  z  2  z 
2 2
2P 2P Rr ,ideal
Rr ,ideal  2  80   Rr , short  2  20   
IA    IA    4
11/3/2018 73
Radiation Efficiency of a
Small Dipole
• The ohmic resistance of short dipole is
L2
2 P, short
I z  dz
1 Rs
R, short   2 
2

I A 2a  L 2
2
IA
• Current distribution of the short dipole is
 2z  z
I z   I A 1  ,
 z
 z  2
• Hence z Rs R,ideal
R,short  
2a 3 3

11/3/2018 74
Radiation Efficiency of a
Small Dipole
Rr , short
er , short 
Rr , short  R, short
Rr ,ideal 4

Rr ,ideal 4  R,ideal 3
Rr ,ideal

4
Rr ,ideal  R,ideal
3

• Hence er,short < er,ideal

11/3/2018 75
Antenna Polarization

11/3/2018 76
Antenna Polarization
• The polarization of wave transmitted by the antenna is
referred to as the polarization of antenna.
• Polarization is described by two orthogonal
components:
• Co-polarization : The desired polarization component
• Cross-polarization: The undesired polarization component
• Three fundamental polarization systems are:
• Linear polarization
• Circular polarization
• Elliptical polarization

11/3/2018 77
Types of Polarization

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0qrU4nprB0 by Meyavuz

11/3/2018 78
Polarization
• Instantaneous field of plane wave

with E z, t   aˆ x E x z, t   aˆ y E y z, t 

   
E x z, t   Re E x e  j t  kz   Re E xo e  j t  kz  x   E xo cost  kz   x 
E z, t   Re E e
y y
 j t  kz 
  ReE yo e

 j t  kz  y 
 E yo cost  kz   y 
and
   x   y

11/3/2018 79
Linear Polarization
• For linear polarization the time-phase difference between the two
components must be:

   x   y  n where n  0, 1, 2, 3, ...

11/3/2018 80
Circular Polarization
• For circular polarization
• the magnitudes of the two components are the same and
• the time-phase difference between them is odd multiples of π/2

 1 

  2  2 n  where n  0, 1, 2, 3, ... for LHCP
   x   y    
  1  2n  where n  0, 1, 2, 3, ... for RHCP
  2 

E x  E y  E xo  E yo
11/3/2018 81
Elliptical Polarization
• For elliptical polarization
• the magnitudes of the two components are not the same
and/or
• the time-phase difference between them is not a multiple of π/2

n
   x   y   
2

E x  E y  E xo  E yo

11/3/2018 82
Axial Ratio
• The ratio of major polarization axis to the minor polarization axis
major axis
AR  , 1  AR  
minor axis

11/3/2018 83
Polarization Loss Factor
• The loss occurring due to misalignment of the polarization of the
wave and the polarization of the antenna
PLF   w   a
2
ˆ ˆ
• If ψp is the angle between the two unit vectors
2
then for linear
polarization PLF  cos p

11/3/2018 84
Summary
• Antenna Impedance Z A  RA  jX A
Rr R
er   r
• Radiation Efficiency Rr  R RA

• Radiation Efficiency of Small Dipole

• Polarization
• Types of Polarization (Linear, Circular and Elliptical)
major axis
AR  , 1  AR  
minor axis
• Axial Ratio
PLF  ˆ w  ˆ a
2

• Polarization Loss Factor

11/3/2018 85
POYINTING VECTOR

11/3/2018 86
Introduction
The Poynting theorem is one of the most important results in EM
theory. It tells us the power flowing in an electromagnetic field.
John Henry Poynting (1852-1914)
John Henry Poynting was an English physicist. He was a professor of
physics at Mason Science College (now the University of Birmingham)
from 1880 until his death.
He was the developer and eponym of the Poynting vector, which
describes the direction and magnitude of electromagnetic energy flow
and is used in the Poynting theorem, a statement about energy
conservation for electric and magnetic fields. This work was first
published in 1884. He performed a measurement of Newton's
gravitational constant by innovative means during 1893. In 1903 he was
the first to realize that the Sun's radiation can draw in small particles
towards it. This was later coined the Poynting-Robertson effect.
In the year 1884 he analyzed the futures exchange prices of commodities
using statistical mathematics.

(Wikipedia)
Poynting Theorem
B
 E  
t
D
 H  J 
t
From these we obtain

B
H    E   H 
t
D
E    H   J  E  E 
t
Poynting Theorem
B
H    E   H 
t
D
E    H   J  E  E 
t
Subtract, and use the following vector identity:

H    E   E   H     E  H 
We then have:

B D
  E  H   J  E  H  E
t t
Poynting Theorem
B D
  E  H   J  E  H  E
t t
Next, assume that Ohm's law applies for the electric current:
J  E
B D
   E  H     E  E   H  E
t t
or
B D
   E  H    E  H  E
2

t t
Poynting Theorem
B D
   E  H    E  H  E
2

t t
From calculus (chain rule), we have that
D  E  1 
E  E  E  E
t  t  2 t
B  H  1 
H  H   H  H 
t  t  2 t
Hence we have
1  1 
   E  H    E   H  H   E  E
2

2 t 2 t
Poynting Theorem
1  1 
   E  H    E   H  H   E  E
2

2 t 2 t

This may be written as

1  1  2
   E  H    E   H 
2 2
E
2 t 2 t
or
 1 2  1 2
   E  H    E    H     E 
2

t  2  t  2 
Poynting Theorem – differential form

Final differential (point) form of the Poynting theorem:

 1 2  1 2
   E  H    E    H     E 
2

t  2  t  2 
Poynting Theorem
Volume (integral) form

Integrate both sides over a volume and then apply the divergence theorem:
 1 2  1 2
   E  H    E    H     E 
2

t  2  t  2 
 1 2  1 2
    E  H  dV    E dV      
2
 H  dV  E  dV
V V V
t  2  V
t  2 

 1 2  1 2
S  E  H   nˆ dS  V  E dV  V t  2  H  dV  V t  2  E  dV
2
Poynting Theorem – volume form
Final volume form of Poynting theorem:

 1 2  1 2
S      V   V t  2    
2
E H ˆ
n dS E dV H  dV  E  dV
 V
t  2 

For a stationary surface:

 1 2  1 2
  E  H   nˆ dS    E dV  t V
  H  dV     E  dV
2

S V 2  t V  2 
Physical Interpretation
Rate of increase, magnetic stored energy
S
Power in Dissipated power V
Rate of increase, electric stored energy

Physical interpretation: (Assume that S is stationary.)

 1 2  1 2
   E  H   nˆ dS    E dV      
2
 H  dV  E  dV
S V
t V 2  t V  2 

Power dissipation as heat (Joule's law)

Rate of change of stored magnetic energy

Rate of change of stored electric energy

Poynting Vector
 1 2  1 2
   E  H   nˆ dS    E dV 
t V 
  
2
 H  dV  E  dV
S V 2  t V  2 

   E  H   nˆ dS  power flowing into the region

S

Or, we can say that

  E  H   nˆ dS  power flowing out of the region

S

Define the Poynting vector: S  EH

Direction of Energy Propagation
S  EH

direction of power flow

E S

The units of S are [W/m2].

Energy and Poynting Vector
 How much energy flows thru an area of 1m2

S  EH
1𝑚2
surface S

n̂
The power P flowing through the surface S (from left to right) is:

P   S  nˆ dS
S
Time Average Poynting Vector

 Suppose that
Ez, t   Eoez cost  z  a x
then
H z, t   e z cost  z    a y
Eo

and
e 2z cost  z  cost  z    a z
Eo2
S z, t  


e cos   cos2t  2z    a z

Eo2 2z

2
Time Average Poynting Vector

e cos   cos2t  2 z    a z
Eo2  2z
S z, t  
2
and time-average Poynting vector
T
S   S z, t dt
1
T0

e cos   cos2t  2z    a z dt

T
1 Eo2 2z
S  
T 0 2

S 
Eo2  2z
2
e
1

cos  a z  Re E  H
2
*
