G5AIAI

Introduction to AI
Graham Kendall
Neural Networks
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Neural Networks
• AIMA – Chapter 19

• Fundamentals of Neural Networks :

Architectures, Algorithms and
Applications. L, Fausett, 1994

• An Introduction to Neural Networks (2nd

Ed). Morton, IM, 1995
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Neural Networks
• McCulloch & Pitts (1943) are generally
recognised as the designers of the first
neural network

• Many of their ideas still used today (e.g.

many simple units combine to give
increased computational power and the
idea of a threshold)
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Neural Networks

• Hebb (1949) developed the first learning

rule (on the premise that if two neurons
were active at the same time the strength
between them should be increased)
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Neural Networks
• During the 50’s and 60’s many
researchers worked on the perceptron
amidst great excitement.
• 1969 saw the death of neural network
research for about 15 years – Minsky &
Papert
• Only in the mid 80’s (Parker and LeCun)
was interest revived (in fact Werbos
discovered algorithm in 1974)
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Neural Networks
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Neural Networks

• We are born with about 100 billion

neurons

• A neuron may connect to as many as

100,000 other neurons
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Neural Networks
• Signals “move” via electrochemical
signals

• The synapses release a chemical

transmitter – the sum of which can cause
a threshold to be reached – causing the
neuron to “fire”

• Synapses can be inhibitory or excitatory

 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

McCulloch and Pitts produced the first

neural network in 1943

Many of the principles can still be seen

in neural networks of today
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

X1
2

X2 2
Y

-1

X3

The activation of a neuron is binary. That is,

the neuron either fires (activation of one) or
does not fire (activation of zero).
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

X1
2

X2 2
Y

-1

X3 For the network shown here the activation

function for unit Y is

f(y_in) = 1, if y_in >= θ else 0

where y_in is the total input signal received

θ is the threshold for Y
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

X1
2

X2 2
Y

-1

X3

Neurons in a McCulloch-Pitts network are

connected by directed, weighted paths
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

X1
2

X2 2
Y

-1

X3

If the weight on a path is positive the path is

excitatory, otherwise it is inhibitory
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

X1
2

X2 2
Y

-1

X3

All excitatory connections into a particular

neuron have the same weight, although
different weighted connections can be input
to different neurons
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

X1
2

X2 2
Y

-1

X3

Each neuron has a fixed threshold. If the net

input into the neuron is greater than or equal
to the threshold, the neuron fires
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

X1
2

X2 2
Y

-1

X3

The threshold is set such that any non-zero

inhibitory input will prevent the neuron from
firing
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

X1
2

X2 2
Y

-1

X3

It takes one time step for a signal to pass

over one connection.
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

1
AND
X1

Y
X1 X2 Y
1 1 1
X2 1
1 0 0
AND Function
0 1 0
0 0 0

Threshold(Y) = 2
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

OR
X1 2
X1 X2 Y
Y
1 1 1
X2 2
1 0 1
0 1 1
AND Function
OR Function
0 0 0

Threshold(Y) = 2
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

AND
X1 2 NOT
Y X1 X2 Y
X2
1 1 0
-1
1 0 1
AND NOT Function
0 1 0
0 0 0

Threshold(Y) = 2
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

2
2
X1 -1 Z1
XOR
Y X1 X2 Y
-1
1 1 0
Z2
X2
2
1 0 1
2
0 1 1
XOR Function
0 0 0

X1 XOR X2 = (X1 AND NOT X2) OR (X2 AND NOT X1)

 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

If we touch something cold we perceive
heat

If we keep touching something cold we will

perceive cold

If we touch something hot we will perceive

heat
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

To model this we will assume that time is
discrete

If cold is applied for one time step then heat

will be perceived

If a cold stimulus is applied for two time steps

then cold will be perceived

If heat is applied then we should perceive heat

 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

2

Y1 Hot

Heat
X1

Z1
2

-1
2

Cold Z2 1 Y2 Cold
X2 2

1
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

2

Y1 Hot
• It takes time for the
Heat X1 stimulus (applied at
Z1 2
X1 and X2) to make
-1 2 its way to Y1 and Y2
where we perceive
Cold X2 2 Z2 1 Y2 Cold
either heat or cold
1

• At t(0), we apply a stimulus to X1 and X2

• At t(1) we can update Z1, Z2 and Y1
• At t(2) we can perceive a stimulus at Y2
• At t(2+n) the network is fully functional
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

We want the system to perceive cold if a cold
stimulus is applied for two time steps

Y2(t) = X2(t – 2) AND X2(t – 1)

X2(t – 2) X2( t – 1) Y2(t)
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

We want the system to perceive heat if either a hot stimulus is
applied or a cold stimulus is applied (for one time step) and
then removed

Y1(t) = [ X1(t – 1) ] OR [ X2(t – 3) AND NOT X2(t – 2) ]

X2(t – 3) X2(t – 2) AND NOT X1(t – 1) OR

1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

The network shows

Y1(t) = X1(t – 1) OR Z1(t – 1)

Z1(t – 1) = Z2( t – 2) AND NOT X2(t – 2)

Z2(t – 2) = X2(t – 3)

Substituting, we get

Y1(t) = [ X1(t – 1) ] OR [ X2(t – 3) AND NOT X2(t – 2) ]

which is the same as our original requirements

 G5AIAI Neural Networks

The First Neural Neural Networks

You can confirm that Y2 works correctly

You can also check it works on the

spreadsheet
Threshold
2 Apply cold for one time step
Time Heat (X1) Cold (X2) Z1 Z2 Hot (Y1) Cold (Y2)
and we perceive heat
0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 Read across to see the inputs to
2 0 0 1 0 0 0 each neuron
3 0 0 1 0

Time Heat (X1) Cold (X2) Z1 Z2 Hot (Y1) Cold (Y2) X1 X2 Z1 Z2

0 0 1 Z1 -1 2
1 0 1 0 1 Z2 2
2 0 0 0 1 0 1 Y1 2 2
Y2 1 1

Time Heat (X1) Cold (X2) Z1 Z2 Hot (Y1) Cold (Y2)

0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 1 0

Apply cold for two time steps

and we perceive cold

See Fausett, 1994, pp 31 - 35

Apply heat and we perceive

heat
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Modelling a Neuron

in i   j Wj , iaj • aj :Activation value of unit j

• wj,I :Weight on the link from unit j to unit i
• inI :Weighted sum of inputs to unit i
• aI :Activation value of unit i
• g :Activation function
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Activation Functions

• Stept(x) = 1 if x >= t, else 0

• Sign(x) = +1 if x >= 0, else –1
• Sigmoid(x) = 1/(1+e-x)
• Identity Function
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Simple Networks

AND OR NOT
Input 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
Input 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Output 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Simple Networks

-1
W = 1.5

x t = 0.0

W=1
y
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Perceptron
• Synonym for Single-
Layer, Feed-Forward
Network
• First Studied in the
50’s
• Other networks were
known about but the
perceptron was the
only one capable of
learning and thus all
research was
concentrated in this
area
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Perceptron
• A single weight only
affects one output so
we can restrict our
investigations to a
model as shown on
the right
• Notation can be
simpler, i.e.

O  Step0 j WjIj
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

What can perceptrons represent?

AND XOR
Input 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
Input 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Output 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

What can perceptrons represent?

1,1
1,1
0,1
0,1

0,0 1,0
1,0
0,0
AND XOR

• Functions which can be separated in this way are called

Linearly Separable

• Only linearly Separable functions can be represented by a

perceptron
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

What can perceptrons represent?

Linear Separability is also possible in more than 3 dimensions –

but it is harder to visualise
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Training a perceptron

Aim

AND
Input 1 0 0 1 1
Input 2 0 1 0 1
Output 0 0 0 1
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Training a perceptrons
-1
W = 0.3

x t = 0.0
W = 0.5

W = -0.4
y

I1 I2 I3 Summation Output
-1 0 0 (-1*0.3) + (0*0.5) + (0*-0.4) = -0.3 0
-1 0 1 (-1*0.3) + (0*0.5) + (1*-0.4) = -0.7 0
-1 1 0 (-1*0.3) + (1*0.5) + (0*-0.4) = 0.2 1
-1 1 1 (-1*0.3) + (1*0.5) + (1*-0.4) = -0.2 0
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Learning
While epoch produces an error
Present network with next inputs from
epoch
Err = T – O
If Err <> 0 then
Wj = Wj + LR * Ij * Err
End If
End While
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Learning
While epoch produces an error
Present network with next inputs from epoch
Err = T – O
If Err <> 0 then
Wj = Wj + LR * Ij * Err
End If
End While

Epoch : Presentation of the entire training set to the neural

network.
In the case of the AND function an epoch consists of
four sets of inputs being presented to the network (i.e.
[0,0], [0,1], [1,0], [1,1])
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Learning
While epoch produces an error
Present network with next inputs from epoch
Err = T – O
If Err <> 0 then
Wj = Wj + LR * Ij * Err
End If
End While

Training Value, T : When we are training a network we not

only present it with the input but also with a value that
we require the network to produce. For example, if we
present the network with [1,1] for the AND function
the training value will be 1
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Learning
While epoch produces an error
Present network with next inputs from epoch
Err = T – O
If Err <> 0 then
Wj = Wj + LR * Ij * Err
End If
End While

Error, Err : The error value is the amount by which the value
output by the network differs from the training value.
For example, if we required the network to output 0
and it output a 1, then Err = -1
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Learning
While epoch produces an error
Present network with next inputs from epoch
Err = T – O
If Err <> 0 then
Wj = Wj + LR * Ij * Err
End If
End While

Output from Neuron, O : The output value from the neuron

Ij : Inputs being presented to the neuron
Wj : Weight from input neuron (Ij) to the output neuron
LR : The learning rate. This dictates how quickly the network
converges. It is set by a matter of experimentation. It
is typically 0.1
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

Learning
I1
1,1
0,1
After First Epoch
Note
I1 point = W0/W1
I2
I2 point = W0/W2 0,0 1,0

I1
1,1
0,1

At Convergence
I2
0,0 1,0
 G5AIAI Neural Networks

And Finally….

“If the brain were so simple

that we could understand it
then we’d be so simple that
we couldn’t”
Lyall Watson
 G5AIAI
Introduction to AI
Graham Kendall
End of Neural Networks