OSCILLATORS

INTRODUCTION
• Oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a
periodic waveform on its output without an external
signal source.

• It is used to convert dc to ac.

• The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback

of the output to maintain the oscillations.

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 Difference between an amplifier and
an oscillator:

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 CONDITIONS FOR OSCILLATION:
BARKHAUSEN CRITERIA
• An oscillator is an amplifier with positive
feedback. Ve Vo
Vs A
+
Vf
b
Ve  Vs  V f (1) V f  βVo (2)

Vo  AVe  AVs  V f   AVs  βVo  (3)

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Vo  AVe
 AVs  V f   AVs  βVo 

Vo  AVs  AbVo

1  Ab Vo  AVs
• The closed loop gain is:

Vo A
Af  
Vs 1  Aβ 

Ab is known as loop gain.

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 Basic principles for oscillation
In phase

Vf Vo
Av

Noninverting
amplifier

Feedback
circuit

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 Design Criteria for Oscillators

1. The magnitude of the loop gain must be

unity or slightly larger

Aβ  1 – Barkhaussen criterion

2. Total phase shift, of the loop gain mus t be

Nx360° where N=0, 1, 2, …
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 PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR
• The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits
to provide 180º phase shift that when coupled
with the 180º of the op-amp itself provides the
necessary feedback to sustain oscillations.
• The gain must be at least 29 to maintain the
oscillations.
A > 29

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 CONTINUED…

• The frequency of
resonance for the this
type is similar to any
RC circuit oscillator:

1
fr 
2 6 RC

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 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

A practical oscillator circuit uses an op-amp and RC bridge circuit, with

the oscillator frequency set by the R and C components.

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• The analysis of the bridge circuit results in:

If, in particular, the values are R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C,

the resulting oscillator frequency is:

Thus a ratio of R3 to R4 greater than 2 will provide sufficient

loop gain for the circuit to oscillate.
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 Colpitts Oscillator
• The Colpitts oscillator is a type
of oscillator that uses an LC
circuit in the feed-back loop.
• The feedback network is made
up of a pair of tapped
capacitors (C1 and C2) and an
inductor L to produce a
feedback necessary for
oscillations.

• The output voltage is developed across C1.

• The feedback voltage is developed across C2.
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 Colpitts Oscillator

The oscillator frequency

can be found to be:

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 HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
• The Hartley oscillator
is almost identical to
the Colpitts oscillator.
• The primary
difference is that the
feedback network of
the Hartley oscillator
uses tapped inductors
(L1 and L2) and a
single capacitor C.
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 HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
• The circuit
frequency of
oscillation is then
given approximately
by:

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 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
• Most communications and digital applications require
the use of oscillators with extremely stable output.
Crystal oscillators are invented to overcome the output
fluctuation experienced by conventional oscillators.

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• Piezoelectric Effect
– The quartz crystal is made of silicon oxide (SiO2) and
exhibits a property called the piezoelectric
– When a changing an alternating voltage is applied
across the crystal, it vibrates at the frequency of the
applied voltage. In the other word, the frequency of
the applied ac voltage is equal to the natural
resonant frequency of the crystal.
– The thinner the crystal, higher its frequency of
vibration. This phenomenon is called piezoelectric
effect.

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Characteristic of Quartz Crystal
– The crystal can have two resonant
frequencies;
– One is the series resonance
R
frequency f1 which occurs when XL =
XC. At this frequency, crystal offers a CM
L
very low impedance to the external
circuit where Z = R. C

– The other is the parallel resonance

(or antiresonance) frequency f2
which occurs when reactance of the
series leg equals the reactance of
CM. At this frequency, crystal offers a
very high impedance to the external
circuit.
18
 BJT
FET

The crystal is connected as a series element in the feedback path

from collector to the base so that it is excited in the series-
resonance mode.
The oscillation frequency equals the series-resonance frequency
of the crystal and is given by:
1
fo 
2 LCC
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PHASE LOCKED LOOP
 INTRODUCTION TO PLL

The concept of Phase Locked Loops (PLL) first

emerged in the early 1930’s.But the technology was not
developed as it now, the cost factor for developing this
technology was very high.
Since the advancement in the field of integrated
circuits, PLL has become one of the main building
blocks in the electronics technology.
In present, the PLL is available as a single IC in the
SE/NE560 series (560, 561, 562, 564, 565 and 567) to
further reduce the buying cost ,the discrete IC’s are
used to construct a PLL.
 PLL BLOCK DIAGRAM:

It is basically a flip flop consisting of a phase detector, a

low pass filter (LPF),and a Voltage Controlled Oscillator
(VCO).
 WORKING

The input signal Vi with an input frequency fi is

passed through a phase detector. A phase detector
basically a comparator which compares the input
frequency fiwith the feedback frequency fo .The
phase detector provides an output error voltage
Ver (=fi+fo),which is a DC voltage. This DC voltage is
then passed on to an LPF. The LPF removes the
high frequency noise and produces a steady DC
level, Vf (=Fi-Fo). Vf also represents the dynamic
characteristics of the PLL.
The DC level is then passed on to a VCO. The output
frequency of the VCO (fo) is directly proportional to the
input signal. Both the input frequency and output
frequency are compared and adjusted through feedback
loops until the output frequency equals the input
frequency. Thus the PLL works in these stages – free-
running, capture and phase lock.
 STAGES OF PLL

The free running stage refer to the stage when

there is no input voltage applied.
 As soon as the input frequency is applied the VCO
starts to change and begin producing an output
frequency for comparison and this stage is called the
capture stage.
The frequency comparison stops as soon as the
output frequency is adjusted to become equal to the
input frequency. This stage is called the phase locked
state.
 PLL APPLICATIONS

Frequency Modulation (FM) stereo decoders, FM

Demodulation networks for FM operation.
Frequency synthesis that provides multiple of a
reference signal frequency.
Used in motorspeed controls, tracking filters.
Used in frequency shift keying (FSK) decodes for
demodulation carrier frequencies.