Historical Development

 The first attempt to utilize a scientific instrument in an

effort to detect deception occurred around 1895.
 Lombroso.C, conducted experiments on actual criminal
suspects.
 Used instrument called Hydrosphygmograph (invented
and developed by other scientist for medical purposes)
 Deceptiveness determined on the basis of presence or
absence of Blood Pressure-Pulse change.
William Moulton Martson
 In 1915 he began his research in this area.
 His technique consisted essentially of the use of an
ordinary Sphygmomanometer (instrument used by
physicians in determining patient’s blood pressure)
 He also recorded respiration and noted the time of
subject’s verbal response.
 He also experimented with the galvanometer to record
skin resistance changes.
 John A Larson, 1921 constructed an instrument capable
of recording all three phenomenon –blood pressure,
pulse and respiration.
 Conducted test on number of criminal suspects and
reported high percentage of accuracy.
 In 1926 Leonarde Keeler constructed a more
satisfactory instrument and improved it in 1949.
 “Keeler Polygraphy ” included GSR or electrodermel
response.
 In 1947 Reid introduced a completely revised
Polygraph technique, the most significant feature
being the utilization of Control Questions.
Polygraph
 Not a lie detector
 Poly = many, graph = write
 Machine that records multiple continuous measures of
autonomic nervous system arousal
 Galvanic skin response (GSR)
 Thoracic and abdominal respiration
 Blood Pressure
 Heart rate
General Theory
 Arousal  Increased ANS (Autonomic Nervous
System)activity
 Sweating
 Respiration changes
 Vasoconstriction
 Pulse rate
 Blood pressure

 Specific patterns of arousal during questioning could indicate

guilt or lying
The Instrument
 Pneumatically operated mechanical recorder of
changes in BP, Pulse, Respiration supplemented with a
unit of recording the GSR.
 Phneumograph tubes (chest & abdomen).
 Blood Pressure cuff.
 Electrodes (index finger & ring finger).
Test Procedure
 Pretest Interview.
 Card Test.
 Preparation of Test Question.
 Relevant Questions
 Irrelevant Questions.
 Control Questions.
Basic factors underlying Deception
Responses
 Possible detection appears to be the principle factor
accounting for the physiological changes that are
recorded and interpreted as symptoms of detection.
 Consciousness of wrongdoing may serve as
contributing factors.
Assumption:
 A liar or guilty person will be more aroused by relevant
questions than Irrelevant ones, while an innocent
person will show no difference
 So, if arousal(relevant) > arousal(irrelevant) = lying
Type
 Comparison Question Test
 Directed Lie Test
 Concealed Information Test
Comparison/ Control Question Test
 Most common method of polygraph interrogation
 Developed by John Reid
 Begins with extensive pre-test interview
 Three kinds of questions:
 1. Relevant
 E.g. “Did you kill Nicole Brown Simpson”
 2. Control/Comparison (aka probable lie)
 E.g. “Have you ever stolen something”
 3. Irrelevant
 Is your name Mr. X?
 Assumption:
 A liar become more aroused by lying to the relevant questions
than the control questions.
 An innocent person will be more aroused by the comparison
questions.
 Arousal(relevant) > Arousal(comparison) = guilty
Direct Lie Test
 Same kind of questions as CQT, only subject is
instructed to lie to all the control questions.

 Assumption:
 Guilty person will show more arousal lying to relevant
questions.
 Innocent person will show more arousal lying to control
questions.
CIT (Guilty Knowledge Test)
 Developed by David Lykken in 1958
 Rather than trying to detect arousal caused by lying, tries to detect
arousal from recognition of “guilty knowledge” from the “orienting
response”
 Multiple-choice (serially presented) questions where the
investigator knows the correct answer
Eg. What was the weapon used to kill Mr. X?”
.

Candlestick
Rope
Revolver
Lead Pipe
Knife
Wrench
Assumption:
 A guilty person’s arousal will increase upon
recognizing the correct alternative due to involuntary
orienting response.
 Innocent person will not be able to discern the correct
alternative from the others.
Admissibility
 Is Polygraph Test admissible in the courts?
NHRC Guidelines for conducting
the Polygraph Test (2000)
 No Lie Detector Tests should be administered except on the
basis of consent of the accused. An option should be given
to the accused whether he wishes to avail such test.
 If the accused volunteers for a Lie Detector Test, he should
be given access to a lawyer and the physical, emotional and
legal implication of such a test should be explained to him
by the police and his lawyer.
 The consent should be recorded before a Judicial
Magistrate.
 During the hearing before the Magistrate, the person
alleged to have agreed should be duly represented by a
lawyer.
 At the hearing, the person in question should also be told
in clear terms that the statement that is made shall not be a
‘confessional’ statement to the Magistrate but will have the
status of a statement made to the police.
 The Magistrate shall consider all factors relating to the
detention including the length of detention and the nature
of the interrogation.
 The actual recording of the Lie Detector Test shall be done
in an independent agency (such as a hospital) and
conducted in the presence of a lawyer.
 A full medical and factual narration of manner of the
information received must be taken on record.