Chapter 8

Alpha Decay

◎ Introduction and some other properties of α-decay

● The simple theory of Coulomb barrier penetration

◎ The angular momentum barrier

§ 8-1 Introduction and some other properties of α-decay

1. the theory of α-decay is an application of simple quantum mechanics

and its presentation will not, in the simple approach that we shall
adopt, add much to our knowledge of nuclear structure.

2. We should answer the following question: why do the mean lives of α

-emitting nuclei vary so dramatically

88 Ra  
Th 228
232
from τ= 2.03 × 1010 years for 90

82 Pb  
Po208
212
to τ= 4.3 × 10-7 seconds for 84

This is a 24 orders of magnitude

variation in transition rates !!
3. There are many unstable heavy nuclei in nature. They tend to give a
way excessive energies and charges by emitting α- particles. Only a
few will undergo nucleon emission.

4. We need to find out a reasonable explanation of why the α- particle

decay turns out to be the preferable choice for a decay process to occur
in unstable heavy nuclei.

5. An α- particle being kicked out from an unstable nucleus is basically

the effect of Coulomb repulsion. An α- particle is much less massive
than a parent nucleus and has a more stable structure with large
binding energy (EB = 28.3 MeV). A heavy nucleus with too many
protons can reduce some Coulomb repulsion energy by emitting an
α- particle.
 Energy Release (Q value) for Various Modes of Decay of 232U

Emitted Energy Emitted Energy

Particle Release (MeV) Particle Release (MeV)

n -7.26 4
He +5.41
1
H -6.12 5
He -2.59
2
H -10.70 6
He -6.19
3
H -10.24 6
Li -3.79
3
He -9.92 7
Li -1.94
α-particle decay
( Z , A)  ( Z  2, A  4) 42 He
The energy-level diagram for two
nucleic connected by α-decay
Q  [ M ( Z , A)  M ( Z  2, A  4)  M (2,4)]c 2
The available energy Qα
goes into the kinetic ene
rgies of the α-particle
and of the recoil of the
daughter nucleus.
If Qα > 0, α-decay is
energetically possible;
however, it may not
The energy-level diagram for the
occur for other reasons.
α-decay of 242Pu
 We now have to apply the energy conditions for α-decay to occur in real nuclei
and to find where in the periodic table it is expected to occur.

( Z , A)  ( Z  2, A  4) 42 He

Rewrite the definition of Qα in terms of the nuclear binding energies.

Q  B ( Z  2, A  4)  B(2,4)  B( Z , A) (1)

dB d  B  Thus α-decay is energetically allowed if

 A 
dA dA  A 
d  B  B  dA  B(2,4)  B( Z , A)  B( Z  2, A  4)
 A    
dA  A  A  dA  dB  d ( B / A) B  (2)
4  4 A  
d B B dA  dA A
 A  
dA  A  A
 B(2,4)  B( Z , A)  B( Z  2, A  4)
dB  d( B / A) B 
4  4 A  
dA  dA A

Above A ≈ 120, d(B/A)/dA is

A = 151
about −7.7×10−3 MeV. Now B
(2,4), the helium nuclear bindi
ng energy, is 28.3 MeV, so the
critical A must satisfy the follo
wing relation:

B  B
28.3  4  7.7  10 3 A which is  7.075  7.7  10 3 A (3)
A  A

Above this A the inequality of equation (3) is satisfied by most nuclei and α-decay
becomes, in principle, energetically possible. In fact from A = 144 to A = 206, 7 α-
emitters are known amongst the naturally occurring nuclides.
From A = 144 to A =206
From A = 144 to A =206, there are 7 α-emitters of naturally occurring nuclides.
When α-emitters are found in this range of A, the energies of the emitted α-particle
are normally less than 3 MeV. It is known that the lower the energy release the
greater is the lifetime. Their existence implies mean lifetimes comparable to or
greater than the age of the earth (about 4 × 109 years). Most nuclei in this range on
the line stability may be energetically able to decay by α-emission. They do not do so
at a detectable level because the transition rate is too small.
Above Z = 82 (A > 206)
Above Z = 82 many naturally occurring α-emitters are found, many with short lives.
Why are they to be found when their lifetime is so short?
Most of the heavy nuclei to be found on earth were proba
bly produced in one or more supernova explosions of earl
y massive stars. Such explosions can produce very heavy
nuclei including trans-uranic elements (Z > 92) and thei
r subsequent decay by α-emission will take them down th
e periodic table in steps of ΔA = −4. Each α-decay increas
es the ration N/Z until a β- decay intervenes to restore the
nucleus closer to the line of stability.
 7 α-emitters of naturally occurring nuclides.
α- emitter Natural Abundance Mean life τ
144
Nd84 23.8% 1.04×1016 years

147
Sm125 15.1% 2.74×1011 years

190
Pt112 0.0127% 8.51×1011 years

192
Pt114 0.78% ≈ 1015 years

209
Bi126 100% 3×1017 years

232
Th142 100% 2×1010 years

238
U146 99.2739% 6.3×109 years

The age of the earth is ~ 4×109 years.

 Very long lifetime
comparable to the
age of the earth

Relatively
long lifetime

Fast-decaying
daughter nuclei are in
secular equilibrium.
 Early observations on α-decay established that, f
or a unique source, the majority of the emitted α-
particles had the same kinetic energy.

For each α-emitter, this kinetic energy, Tα, is a fra

ction MD/(MD+Mα) of Qα where MD and Mα are th
e masses of the daughter nucleus and of an α-part
icle respectively.

From the previous transparency we see the values

of Qα and the mean life of the principal α-emitter
in one of the naturally occurring radioactive serie
s.

It is clear that that transition rates (ω) ar

R α is the range in air at 15ºC
and 1 atmosphere pressure of
the α-particles emitted in a d
ecay with transition rate ω.
e a strong function of the kinetic energy .
The empirical rule connection the two is known as
the Geiger-Nuttal rule (1911).
log10   B log10 R  C (4)
 Z = 90, A ≈ 236

neutron proton

About 6 MeV which is

the nucleon separation
energy
Effective potential f
or an α-particle
 For heavy nuclei, the nucleon separatio
n energy is about 6 MeV, so the nucleo
ns fill energy levels up to about 6 MeV
6 MeV
below zero total energy.

If two protons and two neutrons from t

he top of the filled levels amalgamate i
nto an α-particle, the binding energy of
28.3 MeV is sufficient to provide the f
our separation energies and leave the
α-particle with positive energy of about
4 MeV.

Now we have an α-particle with positive energy leaving it in a potential well. Th

e effective potential is the result of nuclear and Coulomb repulsion potentials.

An α-particle is able to tunnel through the “Coulomb barrier” and become free.
The tunneling probability can be calculated quantum mechanically.
This is the effective mechanical potential for an α-particle as
a function of distance between the center of the α-particle and
the center of the system which is the parent nucleus less the
α-particle.

The whole range of potential is separated into three regions:

Region I At distances less than R, approximately the
nuclear radius, the α-particle is in a potential
well of unspecified depth but representing
the effect of the nuclear binding force on the
α-particle.

Region II At a distances R this potential becomes

positive and reaches a maximum value of
U(R) = zZe2/4πε0R, where z = 2 and Z is
the atomic number of the remaining nucleus.

Region III At a distances greater than R the potential

is Coulomb, U(r) = zZe2/4πε0r.
 If the parent nucleus Z+2, is energetically capable of e
mitting an α-particle of kinetic energy T α, then there ar
e two possibilities:

(1). T α > U(R): the α-particle, if inside the nucleus, is

free to leave and will do so almost instantaneously.
(That means in a time comparable to the time taken
for the α-particle to cross the nucleus, which is
less than 10-21 second.)

(2). T α < U(R): classically the α-particle is confine

We need to find the barrier
penetration probability.
d to the nucleus. Quantum mechanically it is fr
ee to tunnel through the potential barrier, emer
ging with zero kinetic energy at radius b (wher
e b = zZe2/4 πε 0 T α, z = 2) and to move to large
r, where it will have the full kinetic energy T α.
 First we consider a simple square
potential barrier with height U and
thickness t. The whole area can be
separated into three parts.

0, -   r  0

V (r )   U , 0r t (5)
 0, r t


The wave function of the α-particle must satisfy the Schrödinger’s equation.

 2 d 2u
 2
 V (r )u  Eu (6)
2m dr

m is the mass of the α-particle

u is the wave function of the α-particle [u = u (r)]
E is the energy of the α-particle
 Solutions of the Schrödinger’s equation in three different sections:

2mT p
(I) u1  eikr  Be ir , k  where T is the kinetic energy
  of the α-particle and p is its
2m(U  T ) linear momentum.
(7) (II) u2  e Kr   e  Kr , K

In the section (III) there is no
2mT p reflection wave therefore D = 0.
(III) u3  Ce ikr  De  ir , k  The probability of transmission
 
is then proportional to |C|2.
 r
r=0 r=t

Since the wave function u(r) and its first derivative du/dr are continuous on boundaries w
e are able to summarize the following equations:

du2 du3
(1) On the boundary r = t, u2 (t )  u3 (t ) 
dr r t dr r t

C  ik  (ik  K )t C  ik  ( ik  K )t
We may have  1   e  1   e (8)
2 K 2 K
 r
r=0 r=t

du2 du3
(2) On the boundary r = 0, u 2 ( 0)  u 3 ( 0) 
dr r 0 dr r 0

K (9)
We may have 1 B     1 B  (   )
ik
Combine four equations from (8) and (9) we have the following relation:

C  ik  K   Kt  ik  K  Kt 
e ikt  1  1   e  1  1   e  (10)
4  K  ik   K  ik  

2m(U  T )
In evaluating the quantity K K

U  60 MeV, T  5 MeV  K ~ 2.3 fm-1

But t ~ several fm

The value of e-Kt is extremely small and can be neglected.

C  ik  K  Kt
e  ikt  1  1   e (11)
4  K  ik 
(13)
Tα (MeV) lnTα 3.6999 - 4.6791(Tα)-1/2
4.0 1.38629 1.36035
4.5 1.50408 1.49415
5.0 1.60948 1.60734
5.5 1.70475 1.70473
6.0 1.79176 1.78967
6.5 1.87180 1.86461
7.0 1.94591 1.93137
(19)
This is a plot of lnω against the values of
Z(M/MαQα)1/2 for the ground state to ground state
transitions of many of the naturally occurring an
d man-made α-active elements.

There are deviations from a single straight line b

ut there is a general tendency for the points to cl
uster near a linear relation between lnω and Z
(M/MαQα)1/2 with a slope somewhat less steep t
han ̶ 3.97 MeV1/2. The deviation is due to the ne
glect of the term f’ of equation (19).

Thus we have a theory which goes some way to

wards adequately explaining the range of these
mean lives.
§ 8-3 The angular momentum barrier
There is an important effect in all processes involving nuclear and particle reactions
and decays. We want to introduce the idea in the context of α-particle decay.

Consider the α-particle decay:

( Z  2, A  4)  ( Z , A) 42 He

Suppose the parent and daughter nuclei have spins of quantum number jp and jD.

The total angular momentum must be conserved. If jP≠jD the α-particle must eme
rge with relative orbital angular momentum (with quantum number l) with respect
to the recoiling daughter nucleus.

With the zero spin of the α-particle the conservation of the vector of angular mo
mentum requires that:

jD  jP  l  jD  jP (20)
 j D  jP  l  jD  jP (20)

The quantum number l must be zero or a positive integer.

Let us now write down the Schrödinger equation for an α-particle (z = 2) leaving a r
ecoiling nucleus (Z,A). For r > R

2 2 zZe 2
   (r )   (r )  Q ( r ) (21)
2M 4 0 r

Here M is the reduced mass of the system. We do the usual separation of

variables: let

 (r )  R (r )Yl m (cos  ,  ) (22)

The spherical harmonic Y defines the orbital angular momentum l and its
z-component m for the outgoing α-particle.
 Putting R (r) = U(r)/r and substituting into equation (21) the radial function U(r) sh
ould satisfy the following equation:

 2 d 2U (r )  zZe2 l (l  1) 2 
   2 
U (r )  QU (r ) (23)
 4 0 r
2
2 M dr 2 Mr 

zZe 2
The Coulomb barrier
4 0 r

l (l  1) 2 The angular momentum barrier

2 Mr 2

It is clear that the total barrier is harder to penetrate and the transition rate will be
lower (and the mean life longer) than with the Coulomb barrier alone.
Blatt and Weisskopf (1952) have given some figures for the suppression fact
ors in α-decay transition rates due to the angular momentum barrier.

l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
ωl/ω0 1.0 0.7 0.37 0.137 0.037 0.0071 0.0011

Values of the suppression factor due to the angular momentum barrier in

an α-decay for which Z = 86, Tα = 4.88 MeV, R = 9.87 fm

Note that we have assumed that the particle is emerging from the nucleus.

However, both the Coulomb and angular momentum barrier effects can apply also to
particles entering the nucleus.

And this is relevant to the rates of nuclear reactions where the first step is the
penetration into the nucleus by an incident particle.
 ~ The End ~

Rosetta stone,

offered the first step for modern

historians to decipher the ancient
Egyptian’s written scripts.