Vous êtes sur la page 1sur 128

AN INTRODUCTION AND A PEEK ON

ITS HISTORY...
INTRODUCTION

 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION - the art of


finding one's way with reference to the
Sun, the Moon and the stars.

 celestial bodies obey certain behavior


and the cycles repeat over a period of
time.
HISTORY
 in the late 15th century the Portuguese and
the Castillians (Spanish) started their
voyages of discovery their instruments of
navigation were:
 Chip log and hour glass to determine speed and
dead reckoning
 Sounding lead to determine depth and nature of
bottom
 Magnetic needles floating on bit of cork to
determine orientation
 Astrolabe to measure the height of a celestial
body above the horizon (H).
HISTORY

 Astrolabe - used to determine latitude by a


sight of Polaris or the meridian passage of
the Sun. invented by the Arabs.

 cross staff – an “improvement” of the


astrolabe. had to be aligned simultaneously
(and therefore view simultaneously) one
end of the cross-staff with the horizon and
the other with the Sun or other celestial
body. Highly impractical.
HISTORY

 backstaff – invented in 1590 by


davis(also called Davis' octant)

 The observer, with his back to the Sun,


aligns the shadow of the Sun with the
horizon therefore maintaining one single line
of sight.
 Sextant – invented around 1750.
 it allowed a more precise measurement of H and
has remained basically unchanged to these days.

 telescope and subsequent astronomical


research allowed accurate prediction of the
position of celestial bodies

 in the latter part of the 18th century the


British Royal Observatory started publishing
the Nautical Almanac.
 The first systems devised to determine GMT
were by observing celestial movements
which were quite fast and predicted in the
almanac.

 Lunar distance method


○ By measuring the angular distance between the
moon and a star near the ecliptic, one determines
the Moon's SHA and, with that, GMT.
 Another method of determining GMT was
by observing the fast movement of the four
planets of Jupiter in their orbits and their
eclipses.

 John Harrison coupled the pendulum with an


escapement of his invention and produced
the first useful chronometers during the 18th
century. The first one weighed 65 pounds.
 In 1837 Capt. Sumner – invented the line of
position (LOP).

 19th century, Capt. Marcq St. Hilaire


invented the intercept method

 Around 1930, Ageton, then a student at


the Naval Academy in Annapolis, invented
the method that bears his name and which
has later been known under other names
such as HO211 and Bayless
 This method uses a short table of
logarithmic functions and is still useful today.
It truly simplified the intercept method. Later,
other similar methods have been proposed
and one of them known as the Compact or
Davies method is included in the Nautical
Almanac
 This system and tables evolved in the 50s
into HO249 for air navigators and later
HO229 for marine navigators. Both are
essentially the same but HO229 give more
precision, are bulkier and a bit slower to use.
CELESTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM...

 position of an object
 uses a sphere (celestial sphere) as its
reference body
 use of the fact that there are 360
degrees in a circle
 coordinates are usually written in
degrees, minutes, and seconds
CELESTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM...

 1. Equatorial Coordinate System


 2. Horizon Coordinate System
CELESTIAL SPHERE...
 a huge, transparent imaginary rotating
sphere of "gigantic radius", concentric
and coaxial with the Earth
 all objects in the sky can be thought of
as lying upon the sphere
 Projected from their corresponding
geographic equivalents are the celestial
equator and the celestial poles.
CELESTIAL SPHERE...
 contains any number of large circles
called great circles
 any great circle intersecting the celestial
poles is called an hour circle
 celestial sphere is divided by hour circles
into 24 sections
 distance between each hour circle is 15
degrees.
CELESTIAL SPHERE...
CELESTIAL SPHERE...
 divided by projecting the equator into
space; north celestial hemisphere and the
south celestial hemisphere
 ecliptic - a great circle on the plane of the
earth’s orbit
 celestial equator - the great circle where
the plane of the equator intersects the
celestial sphere. It is inclined by 23.5
degrees to the ecliptic
 celestial poles - the points where the line
making up the axis of the earth meets the
sphere
CELESTIAL SPHERE...
CELESTIAL SPHERE...
 Zenith - point where a line extending from the
center of the earth through the point and out
into space meets the celestial sphere
 Nadir - the opposite side of the earth (in
reference to zenith) where a line extending
from the center of the earth through the point
and out into space meets the celestial sphere
 Zenith-Nadir axis - line connecting the zenith
to the nadir
 astronomical horizon - a great circle on the
celestial sphere which is perpendicular to the
zenith-nadir axis
CELESTIAL SPHERE...
 celestial meridian - a great circle which
intersects the zenith, the nadir, and the
celestial poles
 cardinal points - four points in the
astronomical horizon which correspond to
the directions of a compass
 North (N) and South (S) points - two points
which lie on the intersection of the celestial
meridian
 East (E) and West (W) points – two points
which lie at the intersections of the horizon
and the celestial equator
CELESTIAL SPHERE...

Astronomical horizon
(Celestial horizon)

Zenith – Nadir axis


CELESTIAL SPHERE...
CELESTIAL SPHERE...

All parts of the celestial sphere: The horizon, zenith, nadir,


celestial meridian, celestial poles, celestial equator,
and cardinal points.
EQUATORIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
 alternatively known as the 'RA/Dec coordinate
system'
 uses the celestial equator, the hour lines, and the
vernal equinox to describe the position of stars
 Vernal equinox - point where the Sun crosses from the
south to the north of the celestial equator. It occurs around
March 21 every year.
 independent of the observer's location and the time
of the observation
 only one set of coordinates is required for each object
 same coordinates can be used by observers in different
locations and at different times
EQUATORIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
 origin: vernal equinox (zero point for the hour
circles)
 also known as the First Point of Aries, since about
2,000 years ago, the intersection point on the
celestial sphere where the ecliptic and celestial
equator
 the time at which the apparent longitude of the Sun
is 0°.
 primary reference circle: the celestial equator
 secondary reference circles: hour circles
 two coordinates: the right ascension (RA)
point and declination (DEC) point
EQUATORIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

 Right ascension (RA) point, α


 analogous to the longitude coordinate on Earth
 angular distance measured eastward along the
celestial equator between vernal equinox and
the hour circle intersecting the point
○ Note: looking at it from the north pole, it is
measured in a counterclockwise direction.
 measured in hours, minutes and seconds rather
than degrees, minutes and seconds from 0-24
hrs
○ Note: 1 hour = 15 degrees
EQUATORIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
 Declination (Dec) point, δ
 analogous to the latitude coordinate on Earth
 angular distance above or below the celestial
equator
 measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds
from -90 to +90 degrees with ZERO (0) being
on the celestial equator
○ Note:
 negative degrees - point is south of the celestial
equator; positive degrees – point north of the celestial
equator
 stars on the celestial equator : Dec=0o
 stars at the south celestial pole : Dec= -90o
 stars at the north celestial pole : Dec=+90o.
EQUATORIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
EQUATORIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

An object's position is given by its RA (measured east from the


vernal equinox) and Dec (measured north or south of the celestial equator).
REMINDERS:

 The equatorial coordinate system is tied


to the orientation of the Earth in space
 Earth’s orientation changes over a
period of 26,000 years due to the
precession of the Earth's axis.
 Precession - refers to the movement of the
rotational axis of a body, such as a planet
 consider EPOCH!!!
REMINDERS:

 Epoch
 a moment in time used as a reference for the
orbital elements of a celestial body
 either the moment an observation was made or
the moment for which a prediction was
calculated
 Julian years - a year of exactly 365.25 days
○ Ex. J2000.0 coordinates
 Besselian years - beginning of a Besselian
year to be the moment at which the mean
longitude of the Sun is exactly 280 degrees
○ Ex. B1900.0 coordinates, B1950.0 coordinates
EQUATORIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

Example:
Star = Einstein Cross
RA = 22h 37m Dec = +03o05' (according to B1950.0
coordinates)
RA = 22h 37m Dec = +03o 21' (according to J2000.0 coordinates)
NAUTICAL ALMANAC...

 a publication describing the positions and


movements of celestial bodies for the
purpose of enabling navigators to use
celestial navigation to determine the
position of their ship while at sea including
the sun, moon, planets, and 57 stars
chosen for their ease of identification and
wide spacing.
 specifies for each whole hour of the year
the position on the Earth's surface at which
each body is directly overhead.
CELESTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM...

 1. Equatorial Coordinate System


 2. Horizon Coordinate System
HORIZON COORDINATE SYSTEM

 Also called as horizontal coordinate system


 Measured in relation to the zenith
 Time and date dependent
 uses the zenith, the horizon, and the
cardinal points to describe the position of
the stars
 Primary reference circle: horizon
 Secondary reference circle: vertical circles
 Vertical circles – perpendicular to the horizon
and intersect the zenith
HORIZON COORDINATE SYSTEM

 Coordinates: the altitude and the


azimuth of a point
 Altitude – angular distance above or
below the horizon
 Zenith distance – angular distance
between the zenith and the point
 Azimuth – angular distance between the
north point and the vertical circle which
intersects the point
HORIZON COORDINATE SYSTEM
TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES

 Horizon to Equatorial Coordinates


A.
B.
C.
D. α = GST – H (if negative, add 24)
Where: α = right ascension (a) aka RA
δ = declination (d) aka Dec
φ = observer's geographic latitude
A = azimuth
a = latitude
H = hour angle
TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES

 Example:
Horizon to equatorial transformation.
Convert horizon coordinates
azimuth= 283°16'16" and latitude =
19°20'04" to equatorial coordinates.
The observer is at the Greenwich
meridian, 52° N, and GST (Greenwich
Sidereal Time) is 0h24m05s.
TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES
 Answer:
 Steps:
To find δ (Dec):
1. convert azimuth and altitude to decimal degrees
2. find δ using eqn .A
3. convert δ in degrees, minutes, and seconds form
To find α (RA):
1. find H using eqn.B (answer is in degree hours)
2. convert degree hours H to decimal hours
3. convert GST to decimal hours
4. find α using eqn.D (answer in decimal hours)
5. convert decimal hour to hours, minutes, seconds
form
TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES

 Equatorial to Horizon Coordinates


A.
B.
C.

Where: α = right ascension (a) aka RA


δ = declination (d) aka Dec
φ = observer's geographic latitude
A = azimuth
a = latitude
H = hour angle
TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES
 Answer:
Steps:

 1.Convert H to decimal hours.


 2.Convert H to degrees.
 3.Convert δ to decimal degrees.
 4.Find sin α.
 5.Find sin-1 to find α.
 6.Find cos A.
 7.Find cos-1 to find A'.
 8.Find sin H (if positive, A = 360 – A', else A = A').
 9.Convert a and A to hour angle form.
THE CELESTIAL (ASTRONOMICAL) TRIANGLE

The terrestrial, celestial, and horizon coordinate systems are combined on


the celestial sphere to form the astronomical or celestial triangle.
COORDINATE SYSTEM COMPARISON
COMPASS

Compass was first


used in China in the
400 BC in Feng
Shui (geomancy).
The first Compass
was a simple piece
of lodestone
floating on water
that pointed South.
COMPASS

 The magnetic field of Earth is not uniform


and varies at different latitudes of the
planet. The Compass needle is attracted by
magnetic force and therefore, it is
fluctuating too. When the needle reads
North, it is actually the direction of the
magnetic North Pole. There is a slight
deviation from true North and this
phenomenon is called declination
QUADRANT
The Quadrant was
the first altitude-
measuring
instrument
developed for use in
celestial navigation,
dating back to the
15th century. Its first
recorded use at sea
was by Diego
Gomes in 1461.
QUADRANT

The Quadrant
does not
require the
view of the
horizon to find
altitude unlike
most other
instruments
used to find
altitude.
CROSS STAFF

Cross-staff is restricted
from around 20° to 60°.
therefore it is impossible
to use the Cross-staff in
low latitude regions.
ASTROLABE

The Mariner's
Astrolabe (left)
is the adapted
version of the
Astrolabe used
solely for
navigation
MARINER’S ASTROLABE

It is a much simpler device


compared to the typical Astrolabe,
consisting of a heavy ring suspended from
a thumb ring. The circumference of the ring
is marked in degrees and the alidade is
pivoted in the center of the ring with
pointers against the scale for measuring
celestial altitudes.

Using the thumb ring, the


astrolabe is held above eye level. The
alidade is then rotated until the Sun or star
is visible and the altitude is then read off
the scale
SEXTANT
SEXTANT PARTS
 Sextant: a navigation instrument that is used to establish position by
measuring the height of stars from the horizon.
Index mirror: large polished plate that reflects light.
Telescope: optical instrument made of lens that magnifies objects.
Telescope clamp: reinforcing circle.
Eyepiece: lens the user looks through.
Telescope printing: lens adjustment.
Frame: structure that serves as the base for the different parts of the
sextant.
Graduated arc: graduated edge of the arc.
Locking device: apparatus that holds the sextant in place.
Drum: graduated button used to take measurements.
Index arm: type of ruler that determines direction or measures an angle.
Screw to regulate small mirror: piece of metal used to adjust the
horizon mirror.
Glass filter: colored transparent substance.
Horizon mirror: small polished glass plate that reflects light.
Glass filter: colored transparent substance.
SEXTANT
BACK-STAFF : ORIGIN

 Circa 1594
 Intention: Improvement over
 Mariners’ Quadrants
 Astrolabes
 Cross-staves
BACK-STAFF : CONSTRUCTION

 graduated staff
 a half-cross in the shape of an arc of a
circle on the radius of the staff with a
fixed vane
 a brass horizon vane with a slit in it at
the fore-end of the staff.
BACK-STAFF : USAGE

 The observer places the staff on his


shoulder and stand with his back to the
sun.
 With the horizon vane lined up with the
horizon, he slides the half-cross back and
forth until the shadow of its vane falls
across the slit in the bottom vane while the
horizon remains visible through the slit.
BACK-STAFF : ILLUSTRATION
BACK-STAFF : REMARKS

 The observer is able to sight both the sun


and the horizon while his back is towards
the sun.
 Eliminated problems from Cross-staff
○ Ocular parallax
○ Eye damage from looking directly at the Sun

 Can only be used to measure the altitude


of the Sun and not other celestial bodies.
OCTANT : ORIGIN

 Around late 1600s and early 1700s


 Shifted to optical systems based on
mirrors and prisms
 Independent & almost simultaneous
development
 John Hadley, an Englishman
 Thomas Godfrey, a Philadelphia glazier
 About 1731
OCTANT : CONSTRUCTION

 a frame (one eighth of a circle)


 an index arm
 two mirrors
 an eyepiece

Illustration:
OCTANT : USAGE

 index arm is pivoted at the circle’s center


and moving over the graduation on the arc
 the index glass, fully reflecting, is placed on
the index arm exactly above the pivot
 the horizon mirror, half-silvered, is placed
on one radius of the octant
 the eyepiece is placed upon the other
radius, opposite to the horizon mirror
OCTANT : USAGE

 Horizon is viewed through the horizon


mirror
 Index glass reflects light from celestial
body, then by the horizon mirror to the
eyepiece
 Navigator must align the horizon to the
reflection of light and the scale would follow
 The angle measured is transferred to the
lunar table whereby the longitude of the
observer will be known
OCTANT : BASIS

 Law of reflection of light


 the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection for a plane mirror
 It follows that if the mirror is moved so that
the angle of incidence is altered, the angle
at which the emergent ray is reflected will be
altered by an angle twice that through which
the mirror has been moved.
OCTANT : COMPARISON

 To the Sextant:
 Same operation/usage
 Reduction in radius helps reduce weight
OCTANT : REMARKS
 One of the first instruments that could measure
angle with sufficient accuracy
 The observer need only to look at one place while
adjusting the instrument
 Prevents ocular parallax
 Reading is not affected by the rolling and pitching
of the ship
 Glare from the sunlight is reduced when observing
the Sun using the Octant (compared to the
Quadrant or the Cross-staff)
OCTANT : REMARKS

 Difficult to use at night


 Horizon is invisible
 People tried to make use of artificial horizon
○ Bubble Sextant (spirit level)

 More complex construction


SUNDIAL : ORIGIN

 More than 3500 years ago


 Used the Sun to tell the time
 Started to construct sundials
SUNDIAL : USAGE

 Set in direct sunlight


 Magnetic compass needed
 Set in cloudless night
 Line up with Polaris
SUNDIAL : ILLUSTRATION
SUNDIAL : REMARKS

 very simple to make and to use


 no longer accurate after a month
 obliquity of Earth causes the 'path' of the
Sun to change over the months
 The same Sundial cannot be used in
two different places
 The Sun has different 'paths' for two different
places
NOCTURNAL : ORIGIN

 AKA Nocturlabe
 1272
 Calculates the time at night
NOCTURNAL : BASIS

 works on the principle that stars close to


the Celestial Poles are circumpolar
 Circumpolar, adj. Denoting a star that
from a given observer's latitude does not
go below the horizon.
NOCTURNAL : CONSTRUCTION

 several pieces of metal or wood


 attached at the center so they can rotate
relative to one another
 at the axis of rotation is a hole
NOCTURNAL : USAGE

 Held upright by the handle until the


Polaris can be sighted through the hole
 The long arm of the device is then
turned until it lies along the line made by
the two brightest stars in the
constellation Ursa Major.
 The bright star in the Ursa Minor can be
used in the same way.
NOCTURNAL : USAGE

 If Ursa Minor is used, the inner dial would


be turned so that the pointer marked "LB"
would lie against the date on which the
observation is being made.
 If the Ursa Major is chosen as a reference,
the procedure is the same, except that the
small pointer marked "GB" is set against
the date
 By doing this, the correction from sidereal
time to solar time is automatically
corrected.
NOCTURNAL : REMARKS

 Could only be used in the northern


hemisphere because it requires the user
to be able to see Ursa Major or Ursa
Minor, which lie near the North Celestial
Pole
CHRONOMETER : ORIGIN

 Idea: circa 13th century


 Invention: 18th century
 English clock-maker, John Harrison
 Brothers John and James made two
clocks that lost no more than a second
per month
 Remarkable at the year 1726
 AKA sea-clock
CHRONOMETER : H1

 Harrison Number 1
 1735
 Balance ring with two 5-pound weights
connected by brass arcs replace the
pendulum
 Weights balances the spring during tilts and
turns by the sea
 Total weight: 72 pounds
CHRONOMETER : H1
CHRONOMETER : H2

 Harrison Number 2
 1739
 Tall and heavier, but took up less space
 Innovation: The remontoire mechanism
ensures that the force on the
escapement is constant, thus improving
the accuracy of the clock
CHRONOMETER : H2
CHRONOMETER : H3

 Harrison Number 3
 1741
 Similar to H2, but smaller, lighter, had
circular balances instead of dumbbell
shapes
 A bi-metallic curb was used to allow for
variations in temperature
 Impossible to adjust without dismantling
and re-assembling
CHRONOMETER : H3
CHRONOMETER : H4

 Harrison Number 4
 Breakthrough: 5.25 inches
 Oil was used as lubricants
 to minimize the problems of ageing oil, Harrison
used wheels and pinions with a great number of
teeth that increased the efficiency of the clock
 lost 5 seconds in 2 months
 corresponded to an error in longitude of only
1.25 minutes
CHRONOMETER : H4
CHRONOMETER : H5

 Harrison Number 5
 1772
 Harrison’s final longitude time-keeper
 Mechanically very similar to H4.
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

1 A self-contained navigation technique in which


measurements provided by accelerometers and
gyroscopes are used to track the position and orientation
of an object relative to a known starting point, orientation
and velocity

2 Inertial navigation is used in a wide range of applications


including the navigation of aircraft, tactical and strategic
missiles, spacecraft, submarines and ships
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

Inertial measurement units (IMUs)

Contain three orthogonal rate-gyroscopes and three


orthogonal accelerometers, measuring angular
velocity and linear acceleration

and...

By processing signals from these devices it is


possible to track the position and orientation of a
device
INERTIAL SYSTEM
CONFIGURATION
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Stable Platform Systems
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Stable Platform Systems

- the inertial sensors are mounted on a platform


which is isolated from any external rotational motion.
In other words the platform is held in alignment with
the global frame
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Stable Platform Systems

- this is achieved by mounting the platform using


gimbals (frames) which allow the platform freedom in
all three axes
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Stable Platform Systems

- the platform mounted gyroscopes detect any


platform rotations. These signals are fed back
to torque motors which rotate the gimbals in
order to cancel out such rotations, hence
keeping the platform aligned with the global
frame
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Stable Platform Systems

- to track the orientation of the device the


angles between adjacent gimbals can be read
using angle pick-offs. To calculate the position
of the device the signals from the platform
mounted accelerometers are double integrated
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Strapdown Systems

- the inertial sensors are mounted rigidly onto


the device, and therefore output quantities
measured in the body frame rather than the
global frame
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Strapdown Systems
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Strapdown Systems

- to keep track of orientation the signals from


the rate gyroscopes are ’integrated’. To track
position the three accelerometer signals are
resolved into global coordinates using the
known orientation, as determined by the
integration of the gyro signals. The global
acceleration signals are then integrated as in
the stable platform algorithm.
INERTIAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

Stable platform and strapdown systems are


both based on the same underlying principles.
Strapdown systems have reduced mechanical
complexity and tend to be physically smaller than
stable platform systems. These benefits are
achieved at the cost of increased computational
complexity. As the cost of computation has
decreased strapdown systems have become the
dominant type of INS.
GYROSCOPE

 device for measuring


or maintaining
orientation
 based on the
principles of
angular
momentum

 defy gravity
GYROSCOPE: HISTORY

 1817 it simply called the "Machine.“


 by Johann Bohnenberger
 Recommended the machine for use as
teaching aid
 by French mathematician Pierre-Simon
Laplace
GYROSCOPE: HISTORY

 In 1852, it was used for an experiment


involving the rotation of the Earth
 by Foucault, he was also the one who gave
the device its modern name
 (Greek skopeein, to see) the Earth's rotation
(Greek gyros, circle or rotation)
GYROSCOPE: HISTORY
 1860s, electric motors made the concept feasible,
leading to the first prototype gyrocompasses
 the first functional marine gyrocompass was
developed between 1905 and 1908 by German
inventor Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe
 The American Elmer Sperry followed with his own
design in 1910, and other nations soon realized
the military importance of the invention
 The Sperry Gyroscope Company quickly
expanded to provide aircraft and naval stabilizers
as well, and other gyroscope developers followed
suit.
GYROSCOPE: HISTORY

 In 1917, the Chandler Company created


the "Chandler gyroscope," a toy gyroscope
with a pull string and pedestal

 MEMS (Micro Electro-Mechanical System)


 idea of the Foucault
 produce by Systron Donner Inertial (SDI).
GYROSCOPE
GYROSCOPE
GYROSCOPE
GYROSCOPE
ACCELEROMETER

 a device that measures non-


gravitational accelerations
 non-gravitational acceleration is produced
by forces other than gravity or
inertial/fictitious forces
 simple mechanical forces, these are
transmitted to the accelerometer device
through mechanical stress on its mounting.
ACCELEROMETER

 expressed in SI units (m/s2) or popularly


in terms of g-force
 does not measure the "acceleration" due
to gravity
 in free fall in a gravity field, even though
being accelerated, will read "zero"
 uses in an earth orbiting spaceship.
ACCELEROMETER: HISTORY

 micro electro-mechanical systems


(MEMS)
 consisting of little more than a
cantilever beam with a proof mass (also
known as seismic mass).
ACCELEROMETER
ACCELEROMETER

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi