RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Avinash Baldi (2018H1240097P)

Yojana Goyal (2018H1240101P)
BITS Pilani M.E. Communication Engineering
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
 STANDARD LOADS FOR VNA
CALIBRATION
BITS Pilani
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad
Errors while using VNA

All measurement systems, including those employing network analyzers, can be

plagued by three types of measurement errors:
– Systematic errors
– Random errors
– Drift errors

• Systematic errors are by imperfections in the test equipment and test setup. If
these errors do not vary over time, they can be characterized through calibration
and mathematically removed during the measurement process. Systematic errors
encountered in network measurements are related to signal leakage, signal
reflections, and frequency response.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Errors while using VNA

• Random errors vary randomly as a function of time. Since they are not predictable,
they cannot be removed by calibration The main contributors to random errors are
instrument noise (e.g., IF noise floor), switch repeatability, and connector
repeatability.

• Drift errors occur when a test system’s performance changes after a calibration
has been performed. They are primarily caused by temperature variation and can
be removed by additional calibration.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

What is the Solution?

• Response calibration is simple to perform, but corrects for only a few of the 12
possible systematic error terms (namely, reflection and transmission tracking).
Response calibration is a normalized measurement in which a reference trace is
stored in the network analyzer’s memory,

• Vector error correction is a more thorough method of removing systematic errors.

This type of error correction requires a network analyzer capable of measuring
phase as well as magnitude, and a set of calibration standards with known, precise
electrical characteristics. The two main types of vector error correction are the
one-port and two-port calibrations

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

One-Port Calibration

A one-port calibration can measure and minimize three systematic error terms
(directivity, source match, and reflection tracking) from reflection measurements.
Three known calibration standards must be measured, such as a Short, Open, and a
Load .
One-port calibration makes it possible to derive the DUT's actual reflection S-
parameters.
One-port calibration methods :
● (SOL) Short-Open-Load calibration - Response calibration for measuring
VSWR/Return Loss.
● (SSL) Short-Short-Load calibration - Calibration for measuring VSWR/Return Loss
in waveguide applications

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Two-Port Calibration

Traditional full two-port calibrations utilize three impedance standards and one
transmission standard to define the calibrated reference plane. These standards,
typically a Short, Open, Load, and Thru, make up the SOLT calibration kit. The most
common Thru used is the test ports connected directly together.
Two-Port full calibration methods :
● (SOLT) Short-Open-Load-Thru - Full two-port calibration for performing forward
and reverse transmission and reflections measurements.
● (SSLT) Short-Short-Load-Thru - Full two-port calibration for performing forward
and reverse transmission and reflections measurements.
● (TRL) Thru-Reflect-Line - Full two-port calibration for performing forward and
reverse transmission and reflections measurements

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Calibration Kits

• A mechanical calibration kit consists of a set of physical devices called

standards.
• Each standard has a precisely known magnitude and phase response as a
function of frequency.
• In order for the VNA to use the standards of a calibration kit, each standard
must be “assigned” standard classes which correspond to the calibration method
used by the VNA.
• Keysight currently supplies mechanical calibration kits with 1.0-mm, 1.85-mm,
2.4-mm, 3.5-mm, 7-mm, and Type-N 50 ohm, Type-N 75 ohm , Type-FD 75 ohm
and 7-16 coaxial connectors.
• Rectangular waveguide calibration kits include X, P, K, R, Q, U, V and W bands.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Calibration Kits

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Calibration Kit Design and
Specifications
• The majority of VNAs define calibration standards by using a
transmission line model for 2-port standards and a terminated
transmission line model for 1-port standards. (See Figure).

• Standard Load used are Co-axial loads of 50Ω and 75Ω i.e.
Zc= 50Ω or 75Ω

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Calibration Kit Type and
Load

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Terminating Devices

Short
• Short standards are in some ways even more ideal than open standards,
because they form nearly ideal reflections at the shorting plane.

• Many vector network analyzers assume that the short is an ideal short
and has a reflection coefficient of –1. This may be adequate at low
frequencies and for large connector sizes, such as 7 mm and larger.
However, at higher frequencies and for smaller connectors, 3.5 mm and
smaller, at least a third order polynomial inductance model, LS, is
required. Loss of the short circuit is assumed to be insignificant.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Short

Model for short standard

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Short

Physical design for short

• The short circuit standards are the simplest of mechanical standards, and
typically consist of just the center pin connected to ground.

• While there is no requirement for the length of the short to match the
length of the open, it is best to make the length just slightly longer so
that phase shift versus frequency of the short matches that of the open
(which has some excess phase due to the fringing capacitance).

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Short Offset

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Terminating Device

Open
• Open circuits radiate at high frequencies. This effectively increases the
electrical length of the device and can be modeled as a frequency dependent
capacitor, C0, (also known as fringing capacitance).

• At low frequencies, a fixed capacitance value may be sufficient. Most

network analyzers use a third order polynomial capacitance model. Radiation
loss is assumed to be insignificant.

• Therefore we will never see a dot at the edge of the Smith chart at Z =∞; it
will always be an arc due to the offset open.

• The principal deviations from ideal are due to a change in position of the
open, rotated from the reference plane by a short length of transmission
line, and fringing capacitance from the end of the open.
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Open

Model for open standard

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Open

Physical Design for Open

• In most instances, the male test port (female standard) uses a center-pin
extender that produces a constant diameter to match the system
impedance. This produces phase shift associated with the length of the
line.

• The extenders are typically attached to the back of the standard with an
insulated support made from Lexan or other plastic material.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Calibration Kit Type and
Load

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Calibration Kit Design and
Specifications
Load
• The load standard is usually the most difficult to produce, and errors
associated with it may increase dramatically with frequency

• The typical model for a load element contains only a resistance and a
delay line.

• The fixed load is assumed to be a perfect termination, ΓL = 0. However, if

an offset transmission line with a finite delay and loss is specified, and an
offset Z0 is not equal to the reference impedance, the total reflection is
NOT zero.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Calibration Kit Type and
Load

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Calibration Kit Type and
Load
Physical Design for Load

• The load element, is formed by terminating a coaxial standard into a

resistive element, often a thin-film circuit with a patch of tantalum
nitride designed to provide a constant impedance with frequency.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Calibration Kit Type and
Load

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Different Types of Standards
used for Open, Short and Load

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Calibration Kit Type and
Load

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 BITS Pilani
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad

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