EPR-2-1

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 Two main types of voltages in use
◦ Direct current
◦ Alternating current

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 Alternating current system is varsetile since it
can be used by both A.C. and D.C.
Consumers.
 D.C. supply can be obtained from the A.C. by
rectifying the A.C. into D.C
 Direct current generators are expensive.


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 Extra low voltages:
◦ Up to 30 Vrms (A.C.) and 50 V (D.C.)
 Low Voltage:
◦ 250 V or less.
 Medium Voltages:
◦ 251 to 650 V
 High Voltage:
◦ 651 to 3000 V
 Extra-High voltages:
◦ More than 3000 V

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 It is impractical for the supply authorities to
maintain the same constant voltage at the
terminals of their customers due to voltage
drops in the distribution system as the loads
vary.

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 The acceptable variation under the electricity
regulation is ± 10% of the declared voltage.
 The permitted variation in frequency is ± 1%
of declared frequency.

 The majority of supply authorities throughout

the world provide a 3 phase a.c supply
system to consumers

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 There are 4 distinct stages of a 3 phase
electricity system:
◦ Generation
◦ Transmission
◦ Distribution
◦ Utilisation

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 Voltage is generated at 11KV (Malawi)
 The generator has 2 main Parts:
◦ Startor
◦ Rotor
 But to fully operate, the generator needs two
additional parts
◦ Exciter
◦ Prime mover

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 Electrical
PRIME output
ROTOR STATOR
MOVER (a.c.
voltage)

EXCITER
(dc
source)

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 Generator works on electromagnetic
induction principle which is based on
Faradays law

 “whenever there is a relative motion between

a magnetic field and a conductor, emf is
induced in that conductor”

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 The rotor winding is continuously fed from a
dc source through brushes and slip rings
 The direct current flowing in the rotor
conductors produces a magnetic flux in the
air around it
 As the prime mover (turbine) drives the rotor,
the magnetic flux is carried with it.
 As it rotates, the flux cuts the stator
conductors thereby inducing an EMF in the in
them.

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 The stator conductors are placed at 120° to
each other, therefore the flux does not cut
the cut the conductors simultaneously but at
equal intervals
 The emf induced in one winding is identical
to that induced in the other, but it is out of
phase by 120°

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 Electricity is generated at 11KV, 22KV, and
33KV( in Malawi its is at 11KV)
 This generated voltage is stepped up by large
transformers to 66KV or 132KV
 Higher voltages are preferred during
transmission because losses are reduced

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 The Transmission voltages are subsequently
reduced to distribution voltages of 33KV and
11KV for primary and secondary distribution
systems respectively
 The 11 KV is further reduced to 400V for non
domestic consumers or to 230V for domestic
consumers

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 The substation can provide a number of
supply systems, namely
◦ 3 phase, 4 wire supply system
◦ 3 phase, 3 wire supply system

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 Mainly used for domestic consumers
 Consists of any one of the live wires and a
neutral wire

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 Consists of 3 single phase circuits with a
common earthed conductor know as the
neutral.
 The transformer secondary windings are
connected in star.
 The star point is then earthed and connected
to the neutral

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 All three phase supplies are connected to the
three live conductors.
 Lighting, heating and other single phase
supplies are connected to one of the three
lines and the neutral.
 This type of system is the usual type of
supply for commercial institutions and
industrial premises of medium size

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 Used in large loads which do not present
problems in load balancing over the three
phases eg motors.
 However, its main disadvantage is that no
single phase supplies can be taken from it.

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◦ If three phase windings are kept independent,
then six wires are needed to connect a supply
source (such as a generator) to a load (such as a
motor)
◦ To reduce the number of wires, these windings are
interconnected in two ways
 Star connection
 Delta connection
◦ Sources of three phased supplies are usually
connected in star where as 3phased transformer,
motor windings and other loads are connected in
either star or delta
 Outlets from each load are joined together to
form neutral point (star point)
 Voltages VR, VY and VB are called phase
voltages (VP), or line to neutral voltages.
 Voltages VRY, VYB and VBR are called Line
voltages.
 The end of one load is connected to the start
of the next load
 Line Voltages VRY, VYB and VBR are the
respective phase voltages (VP).
 P= I2R
 In A.C. circuits, we will need to define R in
terms of Impedance (Z).
 R= Z cos Ø

 Prove that power will be given as VI cos Ø

 Compare power in a star connected circuits
and delta connected circuit.

 When doing measurements, we can easily get

the line voltages. That’s why we use line
values to calculate power.
 There are three types of power
i. Active power- the power drawn by the electrical
resistance of a system
ii. Apparent power-The product of the voltage and
the current in an a.c. circuit. It is the vector sum
of the active and the reactive power.
iii. Reactive power- Reactive Power is power stored in
and discharged by inductive loads
 The ratio between the active power and
apparent power is known as the power factor
 Power factors are usually stated as "leading"
or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase
angle.
 With a purely resistive load, the power factor
will be 1.
 Inductive loads e.g. transformers, motors and
wound coils - consumes reactive power with
current waveform lagging the voltage.
 Capacitive loads e.g. capacitor banks or
buried cables - generates reactive power with
current phase leading the voltage.

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