Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are
• a major source of energy
from our diet.
• composed of the elements
C, H and O.
• also called saccharides,
which means “sugars.”
 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
• are produced by
photosynthesis in plants.
• such as glucose are
synthesized in plants
from CO2, H2O, and
energy from the sun.
• are oxidized in living cells
to produce CO2, H2O,
and energy.
 Function

Carbohydrates
serve as fuel and
building material
 FUNGSI KARBOHIDRAT
• Sebagai salah satu jenis zat gizi yg paling berlimpah di
alam, fungsi utama karbohidrat adalah penghasil energi di
dalam tubuh. Dan penyusun struktur sel

• Tiap 1 gram karbohidrat yang dikonsumsi akan

menghasilkan energi sebesar 4 kkal, dan energi hasil
proses oksidasi (pembakaran) karbohidrat ini kemudian
akan digunakan oleh tubuh untuk menjalankan berbagai
fungsi-fungsinya seperti bernafas, kontraksi jantung dan
otot serta juga untuk menjalankan berbagai aktivitas
seperti berolahraga atau bekerja.
 Types of Carbohydrates
The types of carbohydrates are
• monosaccharides, the simplest carbohydrates.
• disaccharides, which consist of two monosaccharides.
• polysaccharides, which contain many monosaccharides.
 The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers

• A dehydration reaction occurs when two

monomers bond together through the loss of a
water molecule
• Polymers are disassembled to monomers by
hydrolysis, a reaction that is essentially the
reverse of the dehydration reaction

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 5.2a

(a) Dehydration reaction: synthesizing a polymer

1 2 3

Short polymer Unlinked monomer

Dehydration removes
a water molecule,
forming a new bond.

1 2 3 4

Longer polymer
 Figure 5.2b

(b) Hydrolysis: breaking down a polymer

1 2 3 4

Hydrolysis adds
a water molecule,
breaking a bond.

1 2 3
 Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides consist of
• 3-6 carbon atoms typically.
• a carbonyl group (aldehyde or ketone).
• several hydroxyl groups.
• 2 types of monosaccharide structures:
Aldoses and ketoses
 Aldoses
Aldoses are monosaccharides O
• with an aldehyde group ║
• with many hydroxyl (-OH) C─H aldose
groups. │
triose (3C atoms) H─ C─OH
tetrose (4C atoms) │
pentose (5 C atoms) H─ C─OH
│
hexose (6 C atoms)
CH2OH

Erythose, an aldotetrose
 Ketoses
CH2OH
Ketoses are monosaccharides │
• with a ketone group C=O ketose
• with many hydroxyl (-OH) │
groups. H─ C─OH
│
H─ C─OH
│
H─C─OH
│
CH2OH
Fructose, a ketohexose
Figure 5.3
Aldoses (Aldehyde Sugars) Ketoses (Ketone Sugars)
Trioses: 3-carbon sugars (C3H6O3)

Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone

Pentoses: 5-carbon sugars (C5H10O5)

Ribose Ribulose

Hexoses: 6-carbon sugars (C6H12O6)

Glucose Galactose Fructose

Figure 5.3a

Aldose (Aldehyde Sugar) Ketose (Ketone Sugar)

Trioses: 3-carbon sugars (C3H6O3)

Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
Figure 5.3b

Aldose (Aldehyde Sugar) Ketose (Ketone Sugar)

Pentoses: 5-carbon sugars (C5H10O5)

Ribose Ribulose
Figure 5.3c

Aldose (Aldehyde Sugar) Ketose (Ketone Sugar)

Hexoses: 6-carbon sugars (C6H12O6)

Glucose Galactose Fructose

 Learning Check
Identify each as aldo- or keto- and as tetrose,
pentose, or hexose:
O
C H CH2OH
H C OH C O
H C OH HO C H
H C OH H C OH
H C OH CH2OH
CH2OH
ketopentose
aldohexose
 Structures of
Monosaccharides

Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Monosakarida

Penggambaran struktur
molekul gula menurut :

Fischer : struktur
terbuka, ditulis Haworth : stuktur
secara vertikal siklis (cincin)
(D,L)
 Fischer Projections
A Fischer projection
• is used to represent carbohydrates.
• places the most oxidized group at the top.
• shows chiral carbons as the intersection of vertical and
horizontal lines.

Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 D and L Notations
In a Fischer projection, the −OH group on the
• chiral carbon farthest from the carbonyl group
determines an L or D isomer.
• left is assigned the letter L for the L-form.
• right is assigned the letter D for the D-form.
 Notasi D Vs L

Untuk gula dengan atom C asimetrik

lebih dari 1, notasi D atau L
O H O H
ditentukan oleh atom C asimetrik C C
terjauh dari gugus aldehida atau
keton. H – C –OH HO – C – H
Gula yang banyak ditemui di alam HO C –H H – C – OH
adalah dalam bentuk isomer D.
Gula dalam bentuk D merupakan H – C – OH HO– C – H
bayangan cermin dari gula dalam
bentuk L. H–CO
–H HO– C – H

Kedua gula tersebut memiliki nama

CH2OH CH2OH
yang sama, misalnya D-glukosa & L-
glukosa. D-glukosa L-glukosa
.
Examples of D and L Isomers of
Monosaccharides
O
O
C H
C H O
HO H
H OH C H
H OH
HO H H OH
H OH
H OH H OH
H OH HO H
H OH
CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH
D-glucose D-ribose L-galactose
 D-Glucose
D-glucose is
• found in fruits, corn
syrup, and honey.
• an aldohexose with
the formula C6H12O6.
• known as blood sugar
in the body.
• the monosaccharide in
polymers of starch,
cellulose, and
glycogen.
 D-Fructose
D-fructose
• is a ketohexose CH2OH
C6H12O6. C O
• is the sweetest HO C H
carbohydrate.
H C OH
• is found in fruit juices
and honey. H C OH
• converts to glucose in CH2OH
the body.
D-Fructose
 Cyclic Structures
(Haworth)
Cyclic structures
• are the prevalent form of monosaccharides with 5 or 6
carbon atoms.
O O

Pyran Furan
• form when the hydroxyl group on C-5 reacts with the
aldehyde group or ketone group.
 Drawing the Cyclic Structure for
Glucose
STEP 1 Number the carbon chain and turn clockwise to
form a linear open chain.

H O
C
1
H 2C OH H H OH H
O
HO 3C H
HOCH2 C C C C C
H 4C OH 6 5 4 3 2 1 H
OH OH H OH
H C
5 OH
6
CH 2OH
 Cyclic Structure for Glucose
STEP 2 Fold into a hexagon.
• Bond the C5 –O– to C1.
CH2OH
• Place the C6 group above the 6
ring. O
5
• Write the –OH groups on C2
and C4 below the ring. 4 1
OH
• Write the –OH group on C3 OH 3 2 OH
above the ring.
• Write a new –OH on C1. OH
 Cyclic Structure for Glucose
(cont)
STEP 3 Write the new –OH on C1
• down for the  form.
• up for the  form.
CH2OH CH2OH 
O O
OH

OH
OH OH OH
 OH
OH
OH
-D-Glucose -D-Glucose
Summary of the Formation of
Cyclic Glucose
 Figure 5.4

1 6 6
2
5 5
3
4 1 4 1
4
2 2
5 3 3

(a) Linear and ring forms

6
5
4 1
3 2

(b) Abbreviated ring structure

Proyeksi Haworth
1
CHO

Pentosa dan heksosa H C OH

2
dapat membentuk
HO C H D-glukosa
struktur siklik melalui 3
reaksi gugus keton atau H C OH (bentuk linier)
4
aldehida dengan gugus
OH dari atom C asimetrik H C OH
5
terjauh. CH2OH
6

Glukosa membentuk 6 CH2OH 6 CH2OH

hemiasetal intra- 5 O 5 O
H H H OH
molekular sebagai hasil H H
reaksi aldehida dari C1 & 4
OH H 1 4 OH H 1
OH dari atom C5, H
OH OH OH
dinamakan cincin 3 2 3 2
piranosa. H OH H OH
-D-glukosa -D-glukosa
 6 C H2OH 6 C H OH
2
5 5 O
H O H H OH
H H
4 H 1 4 H 1
OH OH
OH OH OH H
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
-D-glukosa  -D-glukosa

Pembentukan cincin siklik glukosa menghasilkan pusat asimetrik baru

pada atom C1. Kedua stereoisomer disebut anomer,  & .
Proyeksi Haworth menunjukkan bentuk cincin dari gula dengan
perbedaan pada posisi OH di C1 anomerik :
  (OH di bawah struktur cincin)
  (OH di atas struktur cincin).
Haworth Structure of Fructose
 Cyclic Structure of Fructose
Fructose
• is a ketohexose.
• forms a cyclic structure.
• reacts the —OH on C-5 with the C=O on C-2.
CH2OH
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH OH
C O O O
HO C H OH OH
H C OH OH CH2OH
H C OH OH OH
CH2OH
D-fructose α-D-fructose -D-fructose
Isomers
 Tes Seliwanof
• Test Seliwanof bertujuan • Fruktosa bereaksi
untuk menunjukkan
adanya ketosa pada
fruktosa (membedakan
glukosa dan fruktosa)
• Fruktosa dapat
dibedakan dengan
menggunakan pereaksi
Seliwanof yaitu larutan
resorsinol (1,3 dihidroksi
benzena) dalam suasana • Penambahan HCl juga
asam HCl.
dengan HCl akan
berubah membentuk
hidroksi metil fulfural
selanjutnya penambahan
resorsinol akan
mengalami kondensasi
membentuk senyawa
yang berwarna merah
oranye.
berfungsi untuk
melepaskan air dari
fruktosa.
Disaccharides
 Important Disaccharides
A disaccharide consists of two monosaccharides.

Monosaccharides Disaccharide
glucose + glucose maltose + H2O
glucose + galactose lactose + H2O
glucose + fructose sucrose + H2O
 • A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration
reaction joins two monosaccharides
• This covalent bond is called a glycosidic
linkage

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 5.5

1–4
glycosidic
1 linkage 4

Glucose Glucose Maltose

(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose

1–2
glycosidic
1 linkage 2

Glucose Fructose Sucrose

(b) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose
 Maltose
Maltose is

• a disaccharide also known as malt sugar.

• composed of two D-glucose molecules.
• obtained from the hydrolysis of starch.
• used in cereals, candies, and brewing.
• found in both the - and β - forms.
Formation of Maltose

Free α-OH
 Lactose
Lactose
• is a disaccharide of β-
D-galactose and α- or
β-D-glucose.

• contains a β -1,4-
glycosidic bond.

α-form
α-form
• is found in milk and
milk products.
 Sucrose
Sucrose or table sugar
• is obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets.
• consists of α-D-glucose and β-D-fructose..
• has an α,β-1,2-glycosidic bond.

α-D-glucose

β -D-fructose
 Sweetness of Sweeteners
Sugars and artificial
sweeteners

• differ in
sweetness.
• are compared to
sucrose (table
sugar), which is
assigned a value
of 100. 60 000
 Learning Check
Identify the monosaccharides in each of the following:
A. lactose
(1) α-D-glucose (2) β-D-fructose (3) β-D-galactose

B. maltose
(1) α-D-glucose (2) β-D-fructose (3) β-D-galactose

C. sucrose
(1) α-D-glucose (2) β-D-fructose (3) β-D-galactose
Polysaccharides

Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides CH2OH
• are polymers of D-glucose. O
• include amylose and amylopectin,
starches made of α-D-glucose. OH
• include glycogen (animal starch in OH OH
muscle), which is made of α-D-
glucose. OH

• include cellulose (plants and wood),

which is made of β-D-glucose. α-D-Glucose
 Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides, the
CH2OH
polymers of sugars, have
O
storage and structural roles
• The structure and function
OH
of a polysaccharide are OH OH
determined by its sugar
OH
monomers and the
positions of glycosidic
α-D-Glucose
linkages
• Functions:
– glucose storage (glycogen in animals &
bacteria, starch in plants)
– structure (cellulose, chitin, peptidoglycans,
glycosaminoglycans
– information (cell surface oligo- and
polysaccharides, on proteins/glycoproteins and
on lipids/glycolipids)
 Storage Polysaccharides
• Starch, a storage polysaccharide of plants,
consists entirely of glucose monomers
• Plants store surplus starch as granules within
chloroplasts and other plastids
• The simplest form of starch is amylose

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.6
Chloroplast Starch granules
Amylopectin

Amylose
(a) Starch: 1 m
a plant polysaccharide

Mitochondria Glycogen granules

Glycogen
(b) Glycogen: 0.5 m
an animal polysaccharide
Figure 5.6a

Chloroplast Starch granules

1 m
Structures of Amylose and
Amylopectin
 Amylose
Amylose is
• a polymer of α-D-
glucose molecules.
• linked by -1,4
glycosidic bonds.
• a continuous
(unbranched) chain.
 Amylopectin
Amylopectin
• is a polymer of α-D-
glucose molecules.
• is a branched-chain
polysaccharide.
• has α-1,4-glycosidic
bonds between the
glucose units.
• has α-1,6 bonds to
branches.
Amilum : Tes Iodium :
 Amilosa : 250-300 •Amilosa +
unit D-glukosa
Iodium→biru
 Amilopektin : ˃ 1000
unit •Amilopektin +
Amilum tidak larut
Iodium→
dalam air, tetapi jika ungu/merah
suspensinya lembayung
dipanaskan terbentuk
larutan koloid yang
kental.
 • Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in
animals
• Humans and other vertebrates store
glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Glycogen

Glycogen
• is the polysaccharide
that stores α-D-glucose
in muscle.
• is similar to amylopectin,
but is more highly
branched.
Figure 5.6b

Mitochondria Glycogen granules

0.5 m
 Structural Polysaccharides
• The polysaccharide cellulose is a major
component of the tough wall of plant cells
• Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose,
but the glycosidic linkages differ
• The difference is based on two ring forms for
glucose: alpha () and beta ()

Animation: Polysaccharides
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Cellulose
Cellulose
• is a polysaccharide
of glucose units in
unbranched chains.
• has β-1,4-glycosidic
bonds.
• cannot be digested
by humans because
humans cannot
break down β-1,4-
glycosidic bonds.
STRUKTUR SELULOSA
 Figure 5.7

(a)  and  glucose

ring structures

4 1 4 1

 Glucose  Glucose

1 4
1 4

(b) Starch: 1–4 linkage of  glucose monomers (c) Cellulose: 1–4 linkage of  glucose monomers
 Figure 5.7a

4 1 4 1

 Glucose  Glucose

(a)  and  glucose ring structures

 Figure 5.7b

1 4

(b) Starch: 1–4 linkage of  glucose monomers

1 4

(c) Cellulose: 1–4 linkage of  glucose monomers

 Figure 5.8

Cell wall Cellulose

microfibrils in a
plant cell wall
Microfibril

10 m

0.5 m

Cellulose
molecules

 Glucose
monomer
 • Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is
found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
• Chitin also provides structural support for the
cell walls of many fungi

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.9
The structure
of the chitin
monomer

Chitin forms the exoskeleton

of arthropods.

Chitin is used to make a strong and flexible

surgical thread that decomposes after the
wound or incision heals.
 Sifat Kimia Karbohidrat
• Sifat Mereduksi
Monosakarida dan beberapa disakarida mempunyai sifat
dapat mereduksi, terutama dalam suasana basa.

Dsebabkan oleh adanya gugus aldehida atau keton bebas

dalam molekul karbohidrat

Bisa digunakan untuk identifikasi karbohidrat & analisis

kuantitatif
 Pereaksi Fehling
• Pereaksi Fehling terdiri dari :
 Fehling A : Larutan CuSO4 dalam air
 Fehling B : Larutan K-Na-tartrat dan NaOH dalam
air
• Dalam pereaksi ini ion Cu2+ direduksi menjadi ion
Cu+ yang dalam suasana basa akan diendapkan
sebagai Cu2O (endapan merah bata atau hijau
kekuningan)
• Pereaksi Fehling dapat direduksi selain oleh
karbohidrat yang mempunyai sifat mereduksi,
juga dapat direduksi oleh reduktor lain.
• Reaksi Fehling :
2Cu+ + 2 –OH Cu2O + H2O
Endapan
 Pereaksi Benedict
• Test Benedict bertujuan untuk menunjukkan
adanya gula pereduksi
• Pereaksi ini berupa larutan yang mengandung
kuprisulfat, natrium karbonat, dan natrium sitrat.
• Glukosa dapat mereduksi ion Cu2+ dari
kuprisulfat menjadi ion Cu+ yang mengendap
sebagai senyawa Cu2O berupa endapan hijau,
kuning, biru ataupun merah bata.
• Warna endapan Cu2O yang terbentuk
bergantung pada konsentrasi karbohidrat yang
diperiksa.
• Pereaksi benedict lebih banyak digunakan
untuk pemeriksaan glukosa dalam urine
daripada Fehling

• Dalam urine terdapat asam urat atau

kreatinin yang dapat mereduksi pereaksi
fehling, sedangkan Benedict tidak.
• Reaksi pada tes benedict
O

HC O C OH

HC OH HC OH

HO CH HO CH Cu2O
+ Cu2+ +

HC OH HC OH
Endapan
merah bata
HC OH HC OH

H2C OH H2C OH

D- Glukosa
 Pereaksi Barfoed
• Test Barfoed bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi atau
membedakan antara monosakarida dan disakarida.
• Pereaksi Barfoed terdiri atas kupriasetat dan asam asetat
dalam air.
• Monosakarida dapat mereduksi lebih cepat daripada
disakarida dengan kata lain pembentukan endapan Cu2O
lebih cepat pada reaksi dengan monosakarida.
• Perbedaan antara pereaksi Barfoed dengan Benedict atau
Fehling : pereaksi Barfoed menggunakan suasana asam.
• Reaksi pada tes Barfoed
O

HC O C OH

HC OH HC OH
CH3COOH
HO CH + 2 (CH3COO)2Cu HO CH + Cu2O + 4 CH3COOH

HC OH HC OH
Endapan
merah bata
HC OH HC OH

H2C OH H2C OH

D- Glukosa Asam glukonat

 Pembentukan Furfural oleh
Pereaksi Molisch
• Pembentukan furfural atau turunannya disebabkan
dehidrasi asam pekat (H2SO4 concentrate) terhadap
karbohidrat dengan α- naftol.
• Test Molisch bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi adanya
karbohidrat.
• Pereaksi Molish terdiri atas larutan α-Naftol dalam
alkohol. Apabila pereaksi ini ditambahkan pada Glukosa
dan kemudian ditambah asam sulfat pekat, akan
terbentuk 2 lapisan zat cair. Pada batas kedua larutan
tersebut akan terjadi warna ungu karena terjadi reaksi
kondensasi antara furfural dengan α-Naftol.
 CHO

HC OH
H2SO4 pekat H C C H
HC OH
HC C C H
HC OH O
O
H2C OH

Ribosa Furfural