Earth Sc 2GG3 -

Natural Disasters and Hazards

Climate Change

Unit 1

Principles of Climate
Principles of Climate
Solar Energy and Climate
Solar Energy and Climate
Angle of Sunlight
The Atmosphere and Climate
The Atmosphere and Climate
Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse Effect
Carbon Cycle
Reflection and Albedo
Reflection and Albedo
Reflection and Albedo
Earth’s Energy Budget
Study Notes
•Climate is the weather of an area averaged over a long
time

•It has significant effects on hazards, involving coastal

erosion, hurricanes, thunderstorms, tornadoes, wildfires
Study Notes
•Earth is warmed by solar energy from the Sun through
The mechanisms of heat transfer

• The mechanisms of heat transfer are:

•Radiation, in which energy is transferred outward as

invisible electromagnetic photons from their source

•Conduction, in which heat energy vibrates molecules of

material through which it passes, by direct contact of
adjacent molecules

•Convection, in which heated molecules move from a

higher temperature area to a lower temperature area
Solar energy and climate
•Solar energy changes through day because Earth rotates
once per day around its north-south axis

•Earth rotates around its north-south axis, inclined at 23.5o

to Earth’s orbit around the Sun.

•Because Earth rotates around the Sun once per year, the
northern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun in summer, with
the longest northern hemisphere day on the summer solstice
(usually June 21).

•It then tilts away from the Sun in winter, with the shortest
northern hemisphere day on the winter solstice (usually
December 21).
Study Notes
•The arrows from the Sun show the solar energy striking
the Earth from directly overhead—for example, on the
northern hemisphere in summer.

•Summer in the northern hemisphere is when the northern

hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun

•Summer in southern hemisphere when the southern

hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun
Study Notes
•Sunlight striking straight down on Earth is intense; sunlight
striking at a low angle, near Earth’s poles, or in the early
morning or late day, is much less intense.

•Radiant energy from the Sun reaches Earth as short-wave

radiation, including visible light and heat

•Atmospheric temperature is affected by the amount of

energy reaching the top of Earth’s atmosphere

•The atmosphere insulates Earth and protects it from the

Sun’s damaging rays

•The warmed surface of Earth reflects long-wave (infrared)

radiation, some of which is trapped by the atmosphere
Study Notes
•In this image to the west over the Pacific Ocean, Earth’s
atmosphere appears as a very thin, bluish line covering
Earth’s surface, approximately the thickness of a sheet of
paper on a basketball.

•Without this insulating layer of gases, Earth would be

uninhabitable.

•The atmospheric layers are the troposphere, from the

ground up to about 18 km; the stratosphere, up to about 50
km; the mesosphere, up to about 90 km; the ionosphere,
above that
Study Notes
•The atmosphere consists of: 78% nitrogen (N2); 21%
oxygen (O2); less than 1% argon (Ar); carbon dioxide (CO2);
other trace gases; water vapour (H2O) varies, and
represents on average 1-4%
Study Notes
•The Greenhouse Effect occurs as short-wave radiation
sunlight passes through Earth’s atmosphere and heats
Earth’s surface

•Long-wave radiation heat radiates outward from Earth’s

surface

• Some long-wave radiation escapes into space

•Some is absorbed by greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the

greenhouse effect

•Significant greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2),

methane (CH4), ozone (O3), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), water vapour
Study Notes
•Water vapour has the greatest effect as a greenhouse gas
(36-66%), then CO2 (9-26%), CH4 (4-9%), O3 (3-7%)

• Water vapour is mostly evaporated from the oceans

•CO2 and CH4 are emitted by erupting volcanoes, animals,

decaying vegetation and forest fires

• NOx are generated during lightning storms

•Greenhouse gases are also byproducts of human activities

such as burning fossil fuels
Study Notes
•Release of carbon dioxide into atmosphere is part of
carbon cycle

•Carbon moves from reservoirs in rocks, in soil, in the

ocean, in living organisms, in the atmosphere

• CO2 in the atmosphere dissolves into the ocean

•CO2 in the ocean can be released back into the

atmosphere

•On land, carbon is held as biomass, in live plant material

and in dead material on the ground and in the soil.
Study Notes
•During photosynthesis, plants take up CO2 from the
atmosphere and release oxygen while growing, the amounts
varying by season.

•The addition of CO2 due to human activities is significantly

larger than the plants and oceans can take up; thus, these
activities add carbon into the atmosphere.
Study Notes
•Part of incoming short-wave radiation is reflected back into
space by aerosols (particles suspended in atmosphere)

•The most abundant aerosol is water vapour – thick, low

clouds prevent sunlight from reaching the ground so they
have a cooling effect

•Water vapour is greenhouse gas so it also has a warming

effect
Study Notes
•Particulates such as ash, soot, dust can increase
reflection and cool the atmosphere

• They form from forest fires, deserts and drought, pollution

• Polluted air circulates around the globe

•Volcanic eruptions produce ash and sulfur dioxide which

cool the atmosphere
Study Notes
•Different surfaces reflect more or less sunlight; this is the
albedo

•High albedo (light-colored) surfaces reflect the Sun’s

energy to keep Earth’s surface cooler

•Low albedo (dark-colored) surfaces absorb heat and lead

to more warming

• White ice reflects 90% of the Sun’s energy

•Melted ice is replaced by the dark surface of the ocean,

which reflects only 10% of the Sun’s energy
Study Notes
•Increased warming melts more ice, causing additional
warming; this is a feedback effect

•The dark ocean surface absorbs more heat than white ice,
so as more of the ocean surface is exposed, melting
increases.

•Thin ice floating on the Arctic Ocean continues to break up

in November 2011.
Study Notes
•Over the long term, energy from the Sun must be
balanced by energy lost back into space, or Earth would
have shown major heating or cooling

•Radiative forcing is the difference in the Sun’s energy at

the top of the troposphere and the Sun’s energy below the
top of the troposphere

•Positive radiative forcing warms Earth – there is more

incoming than outgoing radiation
Study Notes
•Negative radiative forcing cools Earth – there is more
outgoing than incoming radiation

•Some components of radiative forcing are natural and

some are anthropogenic (caused by humans)
 Climate Change

Unit 2

Earth’s Climate History

Earth’s Climate History
Establishing the Temperature Record
Establishing the Temperature Record
Establishing the Temperature Record
Ice Ages
Milankovitch cycles
Milankovitch cycles
Global Warming
Global Warming
Global Warming
Global Climate Models
Study Notes
•Earth’s climate has changed many times – sometimes this
was due to cyclic changes, some one-time and some
human-induced

•Long-term records of global temperatures have been

established through proxy data, which provide an indirect
record of climate conditions

• They include tree rings, sedimentary deposits, ice cores

• They all reasonably agree for the last 800,000 years

Study Notes
•For example, tree ring growth

•Thin tree rings mark poor growing conditions; thick ones

mark good conditions.

•Tree-ring studies use the fact that tree rings are thicker
when growing conditions are better

• Oxygen-isotope ratios indicate temperature

•For example, oceans are enriched in 18O over 16O when

conditions are cooler

•Marine organisms preserve the 18O:16O ratio in shells, then

in their fossils
Study Notes
•Deuterium (hydrogen’s heavy isotope) is preserved in ice
and indicates temperature

•In this section of an ice core from Antarctica, the dark layer
is ash from a volcanic eruption 21,000 years ago.

•The graph shows temperatures of lower atmosphere in ̊C

(difference from present) determined from the Vostok ice
core for last 420,000 years.

•In this section from Greenland, dark layers indicate dry-

season dust deposits each winter.

• This sample shows 38 annual layers (~16,250 years ago).

Study Notes
•Studies of Greenland and Antarctic glaciers show ice
ages, alternating with warmer periods, over the last two
million years

•During the Last Ice Age, the atmosphere was 5-10oC

cooler than now

•Possible explanations for ice ages include variations in

Earth’s orbit, the Milankovitch cycles

•The Last Ice Age, about 18,000 to 25,000 years ago,

spread continental ice over almost all of Canada and the
northern United States, along with northern Europe and
adjacent Asia.
Study Notes
•According to the Milankovitch cycles, Earth’s orbit around
the Sun changes from nearly circular to elliptical over a
period of 100,000 years

•The Tilt of Earth’s axis ranges from 22o to 24.5o in 41,000

year cycles

•The direction in which Earth’s axis points, cycles over

26,000 years

• The longer cycles over last two billion years

•They are of irregular length, and not important to today’s

hazards
Study Notes
•Milankovitch charted three factors that contribute to long-
term climate cycles: Earth wobbles on its axis with a cycle of
about 26,000 years (top line of the graph); Earth’s orbit takes
it closer to or farther from the Sun on a cycle of about
100,000 years (middle line of the graph); Earth tilts on its
axis with a cycle of about 41,000 years (bottom line on the
graph).
Study Notes
•The global surface temperature record for 1978–2009
shows a distinctly increasing temperature trend that is not
correlated with solar radiation cycles reaching the top of the
atmosphere

•Thousands of temperature measurements around the

globe confirm that Earth is getting warmer

•The average atmospheric temperature began rising in the

late 1700s (during the Industrial Revolution) – this is called
global warming

•Temperatures have increased by about 1oC in the last

century, with the most dramatic increase since 1960 and at
the high latitudes of the Arctic
Study Notes
•Here is the record of atmospheric CO2 for 800,000 years
from air bubbles in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets

•It shows a natural cyclic variation from ~200 parts per

million (ppm) CO2 to ~300 ppm

•CO2 levels are 397 ppm in 2012, far above any other time
in the last 800,000 years

•The dramatic rise in greenhouse gases has occurred

because they are byproducts of human industry, agriculture
and energy use
Study Notes
•Changes in temperature (red line) correlate with changes
in CO2 (black line) and CH4 (blue line) for at least the past
400,000 years.

•These data were obtained from the Vostok ice core from
Antarctica.

•Older records to 800,000 years ago show a similar pattern,

becoming slightly less distinct with greater age.
Study Notes
•The increase in carbon dioxide is shown on the Keeling
curve, which measures atmospheric CO2 levels from 1960 to
2012 at Mauna Loa, Hawaii.

•Levels are lower in the plant-growth season, higher in

winter.

• Note that the rate of rise is increasing.

Study Notes
•Scientists calculate formulas for the expected changes in
radiation, atmospheric temperature, pressure, humidity, air
motion

•They predict future changes and compare to actual

changes

• They adjust the formula to improve predictions

•The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in

2007 estimated that Earth’s average surface temperature
would rise by 1.6-3.4oC over the next century, possibly more
than 5oC in some places
Study Notes
•The projected increases in temperature for the twenty-first
century depend on various scenarios for amounts of fossil-
fuel burning and various feedback mechanisms.

•The orange line refers to the unlikely case of no further

emissions after the year 2000.
 Climate Change

Unit 3

Consequences of Climate
Change
Consequences of Climate Change
Effects on Oceans
Effects on Oceans
Global Ocean Circulation
Weather
Solution of CO2:effects on Oceans
Ocean Acidity
Precipitation Changes
Arctic Thaw and Glacial Melting
Sea-Floor Thaw
Permafrost Thaw
Glaciers Melting
Study Notes
•The consequences of climate change are complex

•Extreme weather events are expected to become more

frequent

•Agricultural production and water supplies are expected to

be limited

• There will be a spread of insect-borne diseases

•Economic disruption, population migration, political

upheaval and conflicts over resources seem likely
Study Notes
•These maps indicate how much temperatures are
projected to increase in different parts of the world in 2080–
99 compared with 2011, according to different models.

•The numbers are approximate.

•Note that the largest increase in winter temperature is in

northern latitudes.
Study Notes
•As air temperatures increase, so do ocean temperatures

•The average world sea-surface temperature rose by about

0.8oC from 1910 to 2010

•Effects include changes in regional climate patterns; more

frequent and more energetic storms; oceanic circulation
changes; sea-level rise

•Whether sea level rises by 1 m (left) or 4 m (right), coastal

areas of Florida would be underwater.
Study Notes
•Global warming leads to sea-level rise due to water added
to oceans from melting land ice (~30%); heating and thermal
expansion of sea water (~70%)

•Between 1870 and 2000, the rise in sea level was about 19
cm, 0.15 cm/yr

•Between 1994 and 2009, the rate of the rise in sea level
doubled to 0.35 cm/yr

• World sea levels have been rising for well over a century.

•The rate of rise has been increasing, especially since

about 1930, and continues at about 3.5 mm/year.
Study Notes
•Global warming leads to sea-level rise due to water added
to oceans from melting land ice (~30%); heating and thermal
expansion of sea water (~70%)

•Between 1870 and 2000, the rise in sea level was about 19
cm, 0.15 cm/yr

•Between 1994 and 2009, the rate of the rise in sea level
doubled to 0.35 cm/yr

• World sea levels have been rising for well over a century.

•The rate of rise has been increasing, especially since

about 1930, and continues at about 3.5 mm/year.
Study Notes
•The large-scale thermohaline circulation in the Atlantic
Ocean involves currents of warm, shallow water moving
northward and sinking, cold water moving south (includes
Gulf Stream)

•The low-density fresh water (from melting glaciers and ice

sheets) could stop the Atlantic circulation

•The Atlantic conveyor belt has shut down in the past,

causing dramatic regional cooling

•Red arrows represent surface warm currents and blue

arrows, deep cold currents.
Study Notes
•Most of Earth’s near-surface heat is concentrated in the
oceans

•Warmer oceans lead to greater evaporation and more

rainfall, stronger and more frequent storms, such as
hurricanes and winter storms
Study Notes
•About 26% of the CO2 put into the atmosphere dissolves
into the oceans

•The cold water promotes the solution of CO2 from the

atmosphere into the oceans

•Warmer water will hold less CO2, so less CO2 will be

absorbed by oceans, or CO2 will be released back into the
atmosphere

• This creates a positive feedback effect

•Even if CO2 emissions ceased, atmospheric levels would

stay high due to the oceanic release
Study Notes
•Rising levels of CO2 in ocean water increase its acidity

•Ocean acidity depends on the amount of carbon dioxide

dissolved in water, leading to the formation of carbonic acid

• Normal seawater prior to Industrial Revolution had pH of

8.18 (7 is neutral)

•By 2050 oceans are expected to have dropped to pH of

7.95

• The increase in acidity is occurring faster than expected

•CO2 that acidify the seawater will ultimately kill calcifying

sea organisms
Study Notes
•Areas closer to poles, and the equator will become wetter

• The warmer midlatitude regions will get drier

• More energy in the atmosphere leads to more storms

•Hurricanes and tornadoes would be more frequent and

stronger

•There will be an increased incidence of droughts and

floods

•Here are the projected average changes in precipitation

percent per ｰC of warming in the dry season (compared with
the period between 1900–1950).
Study Notes
•The surface of the Arctic Ocean has been frozen as long
as anyone can remember

•Arctic sea ice has decreased by about 8% per decade

since 1970s, for a total loss of about 20%

•This is a feedback mechanism: high-albedo ice reflects

solar radiation and this cools the air; the darker ocean water
absorbs sun’s energy, melting more ice

• Summer Arctic sea ice is likely to disappear by 2030

Study Notes
•The minimum ice coverage on the Arctic Ocean was much
less in 2011 (right) than it was in 1979 (left).

•Although the extent of sea has cyclical variation, an overall

downward trend on the graph shows the extent of sea ice
decreasing over time.
Study Notes
•The sea-floor thaw appears to be initiating the release of
methane through the melting of methane hydrates

•Frozen methane-ice compound releases greenhouse gas

methane when the ocean temperatures rise, or through
other mechanisms

•Methane is 20-25 times more effective than CO2 in

blocking outgoing thermal radiation

• A methane hydrate (pale orange) layer on the ocean floor.

•Pieces of white methane hydrate decomposing and

burning on the deck of a research ship.
Study Notes
•The permafrost thaw is releasing more greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere, sending more water into rivers and the
ocean

•Here is the permafrost distribution, in the northern

hemisphere.

•Red and orange colors are, respectively, continuous and

discontinuous permanently frozen ground.

• Still paler colors are sporadic occurrences of permafrost.

•Permafrost ice under a parking lot at the University of

Alaska, Fairbanks, is thawing, leaving cavities in the ice and
potholes in the ground.
Study Notes
•Glaciers are melting and shrinking dramatically around the
world

•This creates a positive feedback effect as dark rocks

absorb more heat than white ice

•The Himalayan glaciers provide fresh-water flow for 3

billion people

• Muir Glacier, Alaska, in August 1941 and August 2004.

 Climate Change

Unit 4

Impacts on Terrestrial
Systems
Effects on Plants and Animals
Effects on Humans
Hazards Associated with Climate Changes
Hazards Associated with Climate Changes
Droughts
Droughts

Combined number of droughts and

famines by country 1974-2003
Meteorological Drought
Meteorological Drought

September 2001-
August 2002

September 2005 –
August 2006
Agricultural Drought

A corn crop under drought stress in

Nebraska, USA
Agricultural Drought
Hydrological Drought

Water levels in dugouts excavated by Prairie

farmers for September 9, 2002.
Droughts in Australia

Winter-spring rainfall for El Nino years as

compared to average rainfall conditions
Droughts in Africa
Dust Storms
Study Notes
•Plants, animals, humans adapt to climate changes or
migrate to new climate

•Higher temperatures in a formerly cooler climate might

provide some benefits, but this is not necessarily balanced
because of the loss of agricultural productivity in warmer
climates

• Terrestrial plants and animals are migrating toward poles

•The IPCC suggests that up to 20-30% of all animal species

may die out by 2050
Study Notes
•The risks of certain hazards are increasing

• Drinking water supplies are at risk in many areas

•Respiratory illnesses and insect-borne diseases are

spreading

• Heat waves are more common, more severe

•The effects of excessive temperature build up slowly but

can be deadly
Study Notes
•There is a endency to view hot weather as a discomfort or
an inconvenience rather than a health emergency

•Urban areas have an increased stress with ground-level

ozone, smog, heat-island effect (as much as 5oC hotter than
surrounding countryside)
Study Notes
•Climate is important to agriculture as it impacts rainfall
patterns, soil moisture, etc.

•Northern Canada and Eastern Europe may be more

productive as a result of climate change.

• Lands closer to the equator may become more arid.

• Violent storms may intensify

• Warmer oceans may provide more energy

• El Nino events may be increased

Study Notes
•Desertification is the human induced conversion of land to
desert

•It causes to soil and the natural vegetation, degradation,

and long-term loses for agriculture and grazing

• There is an increase in drought events

• Wildfire events will increase in frequency and intensity

Study Notes
•Droughts are prolonged dry climatic event that dramatically
lower the available water below that is normally used

• They are not abrupt or dramatic, they proceed slowly

• They involve lower than average precipitation in a region

•The definition varies depending on the effect on people; for

example, a drop in usable water available in reservoirs, in
groundwater storage, or in stream flow

•The timing of the precipitation can matter – the winter

snowpack tends to melt slowly and seep into the ground;
summer rains tend to run off
Study Notes
•It is a severe natural hazard in many areas of the world
often accompanied by famine and starvation.

•It is often called a ‘creeping’ phenomena because its arrival

is not recognized until conditions have deteriorated.

•The costs are more difficult to assess than other hazards,

however, the 2001-02 drought has been called Canada’s
most costly disaster.
Study Notes
•Defining a meteorological drought is regionally specific.

•A common tool is the Standard Precipitation Index (SPI),

which compares precipitation at a site to historical records
as accumulated over a period of time (usually several
months).

•The meteorological drought conditions for September

2001- August 2002

• Areas in red are record dry conditions.

•Here is the contrast with conditions observed from

September 2005 to August 2006
Study Notes
•An agricultural drought considers the impacts water supply
on plant growth.

•Dry periods during a summer may not impact plant growth

if water is available in the soil.

•A commonly used index for estimating water available for

plants (soil-water budget) is the Palmer Drought Index that
compares estimates of the soil-water budget to average
conditions.

• The Palmer Drought Index for August 2006.

•Soil water deficiencies are apparent in Northern Alberta

and North Eastern British Columbia.
Study Notes
•An hydrological drought is indicated by dropping water
levels in reservoirs, rivers and lakes.

•Meteorological droughts do not often immediately impact

water levels in lakes and streams.

•An hydrological drought is more closely tied to human

activities due to the demands that humans place on the
water supply.
Study Notes
•A drought is a recurring fact of life in Australia, and is
closely tied to ENSO.

• The Australian wheat production is related to ENSO.

•El Nino years (positive ENSO values) correspond to

reduced wheat yields because of abnormally high
temperatures
Study Notes
•Since the late 1960s much of Africa’s Sahel region has lost
its vegetation cover, due to increased population, intensive
cultivation in marginal areas, overgrazing

• Decades of drought fostered desertification

• This affects about 70% of drylands, 30% of Earth’s surface

•Tropical hardwood forests on marginal soil are cut leading

to rapid runoff, soil loss, severe floods, dust storms that
travel around the world

•Droughts, very common in the Sahel regions of Africa,

contribute to famine and starvation
Study Notes
•A reduction in soil moisture allows the dust to be carried in
the air

• Winds carrying the dust can become a dust storm

•They carry pollutants, dust, sand in plumes around the

world

•A severe drought and disastrous farming practices turned

the U.S. plains states into the ‘Dust Bowl’ in the 1930s,
coinciding with the economic collapse of the Great
Depression
 Climate Change

Unit 5

Adaptation and Mitigation

Adaptation
Mitigation of Climate Change
Reduction of Energy Consumption
Carbon sequestration
Carbon sequestration
Political Solutions and Challenges
Risk to Populations Living on a Sea-Level Delta
Risk to Populations Living on a Sea-Level Delta
Risk to Populations Living on a Sea-Level Delta
Nuclear Energy – Pros and Cons

The destroyed Fukushima power plant

Study Notes
•Even with altered human behaviours, climate will warm

• Humans will have to adapt

•However, if climate change occurs quickly, people will find

it hard to adapt

• This could have severe consequences worldwide

Study Notes
•We need a combination of reducing CO2 emitted and
increasing CO2 removed from atmosphere

•Mitigation is possible through decreasing energy

consumption, increasing use of alternative energy sources
and removing greenhouse gases from atmosphere

•We need to get more energy from “cleaner” sources or

make “dirty” sources cleaner

• For instance, wind power accounts for 1.9% of electricity

• Future wind power may be increasingly offshore

Study Notes
•The most direct way to slow the increase in greenhouse
gases is to slow population growth

•Energy demands in developing nations are increasing

much faster than in the developed world

•We can reduce per-capita consumption of energy through

conservation and greater efficiency

•Conservation of energy in buildings, reduction of standby

mode in electronics, more efficient transportation
Study Notes
•Carbon sequestration is the capture carbon at the source
(fossil-fuel burning power plant) and to place iit n long-term
storage

•The pore spaces of sedimentary rocks, or abandoned oil

and gas reservoirs

•Carbon sequestration involves removal of CO2 from a

fossil-fuel-burning power plant, transporting it to a disposal
site, and storing it permanently underground.
Study Notes
•A different approach involves geoengineering to block
some of the Sun’s incoming radiation

•We can inject sulfur dioxide particles into the atmosphere

like a volcanic eruption

• This would have to be done every year

Study Notes
•Few countries have implemented a carbon tax

• Cap-and-trade laws could reduce carbon emissions

•The 2010 Climate Change meeting in Cancun, Mexico

committed rich countries to $100-billion-a-year fund to help
poor countries reduce emissions but did not collect money
Study Notes
•Low-lying deltas are especially fertile

•This is one of most densely populated areas on Earth with

130 million people in area size of New York State

•A mass evacuation is virtually impossible with limited

transportation options, traffic jams on ordinary days

• Evacuation warnings that are given are often disregarded

•People who have lived through one cyclone underestimate

possibilities of next cyclone
Study Notes
•Houses along near-sea-level ground in the Mekong delta of
Vietnam are just above water level even without a storm
surge

•Several factors cause catastrophic flooding: heavy

monsoon rains magnified by rising against Himalayas, swell
Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers to 20 times usual width;
widespread deforestation, plowing, erosion; siltation of
channels (decrease in capacity increases flooding); gradual
compaction and subsidence of delta sediments; gradual rise
in sea level
Study Notes
•The 1991 supercyclone swept over river levees in
Bangladesh, inundating low-lying fields and drowning
138,000 people.

• Low levees were breached almost every hundred meters

Study Notes
•Nuclear power is cleaner but more expensive

•There is also the unnerving catastrophic failure of

Fukushima nuclear power plant in Japan, following an
earthquake and a tsunami

•The tsunami shut down the cooling power for the reactor
and back-up systems were inadequate

•Reactor meltdown – the nuclear fuel went through the floor

into the containment vessel
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