BIO 156

Chapter 23
Human Evolution
 How Evolution Works
• Genetic variation is the raw material of
evolution.
Changes in species occur because of
changes in genetic material.
– Genetic variation in a species arises from
several processes including:
• Mutations
• new combinations resulting from sexual
reproduction.
• Natural selection is a process by which
organisms become better adapted to
their environment.
– Natural selection is a process in which slight
variations, if useful, are preserved.
– Abiotic and biotic factors contribute to
natural selection.

• Natural selection ensures that the fittest

organisms survive and reproduce.
– Fitness is a measure of reproductive
success.
 The Evidence Supporting Evolution
• The fossil record yields some of the best
supporting evidence for the existence of
evolution.
• Common anatomical features in different
species support the theory of evolution.
– Comparing homologous structures permits
scientists to determine evolutionary
relationships.
• The common biological makeup of
organisms also supports the theory of
evolution.

• Studies of common developmental

patterns supports the theory of
evolution.
• Experimental evidence
supports the theory of
evolution by natural
selection.

• The study of
biogeography helps
explain evolution.
– Biogeography is the
study of the
distribution of plants
and animals
worldwide.
Early Primate Evolution

• Humans belong to the order

called primates, which
includes two suborders:
– Prosimians (premonkeys
– Anthropoids (monkeys,
apes, and humans.

• The prosimians probably

evolved from tree-dwelling
mammals that lived during
the age of the dinosaurs.
• Primates are characterized by grasping
hands, forward-looking eyes, and large
brains.

• The fossil evidence of primate evolution

is limited, making it difficult to determine
the exact progression of early human
ancestors.
 Evolution of the Australopithecines
• The earliest hominids were members of the genus
Australopithecus.
– The oldest known australopithecine skeleton, named Lucy, is
believed to be about 3.5 million years old.
– The skeleton belongs to a group called Australopithecus
afarensis and stood about
3 feet high.

• About 3 million years ago, A. afarensis was replaced by A.

africanus.
• A. robustus appeared approximately 2.3 million years ago, and
A. boisei appeared approximately 2.2 millions ago.
• Australopithecines disappeared about
1 million years ago; no one is sure why.
 Evolution of the Genus Homo

• The first truly humanlike creatures were

Homo habilis.

• Homo habilis gave rise to Homo

erectus.
– H. erectus moved from Africa to Europe
and Asia.
– Homo erectus is believed to be the direct
ancestor of Homo sapiens.
• Modern humans belong to Homo
sapiens.
– Homo sapiens emerged about 300,000
years ago
– Homo sapiens consists of two subspecies:
• Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (the
Neanderthals
• Homo sapiens sapiens
– Cro-Magnons are the earliest known
members of
H. sapiens sapiens.
– The Neanderthals disappeared about
40,000 years ago.
Human races result from variations
caused by geographic separation.
End of Chapter 23