CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS

Prestressed concrete is used in a wide

range of building and civil structures where
its improved concrete performance can allow
longer spans, reduced structural thicknesses,
and material savings to be realised compared
to reinforced concrete. Typical applications
range through high-rise buildings,
foundation systems, bridge and dam
structures, silos and tanks, industrial
pavements and nuclear containment
structures.[4]
 Prestressed concrete is defined as a concrete
construction material which is placed under
compression prior to it supporting any applied loads
(ie it is "pre" stressed).[1]

This compression is produced by the tensioning

of high-strength "tendons" located within or adjacent
to the concrete volume, and is done to improve the
performance of the concrete in service.[2]

Tendons may consist of single wires, multi-wire

strands or threaded bars, and are most commonly
made from high-tensile steels, carbon fibre or aramid
fibre.
 Prestressing is a technique of introducing
stresses into a structural member during
fabrication and/or construction to improve its
strength and performance.
 This technique is often employed in concrete
beams, columns, single and double tees, wall
panels, segmental bridge units, I-beam
girders, and others.
 Many projects find that prestressed concrete
provides the lowest overall cost, considering
production and lifetime maintenance.[7]
 Tensioning (or "stressing") of the tendons may
be undertaken either
◦ before (pre-tensioning) or
◦ after (post-tensioning) the concrete itself is cast.

Tendons may be located either within the concrete volume

(internal prestressing), or wholy outside of it (external
prestressing).

Whereas pre-tensioned concrete by definition uses

tendons directly bonded to the concrete, post-tensioned
concrete can use either bonded or unbonded tendons.
 Pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of
prestressed concrete where the tendons are
tensioned prior to the concrete being cast.[1] The
concrete bonds to the tendons as it cures,
following which the end-anchoring of the
tendons is released, and the tendon tension
forces are transferred to the concrete as
compression by static friction.[3]
 Pre-tensioning is a common prefabrication
technique, where the resulting concrete element
is manufactured remotely from the final structure
location and transported to site once cured. It
requires strong, stable end-anchorage points
between which the tendons are stretched.
 Bonded post-tensioned concrete
is the descriptive term for a method of applying
compression after pouring concrete and during the
curing process (in situ). The concrete is cast around a
plastic, steel or aluminium curved duct, to follow the
area where otherwise tension would occur in the
concrete element.
 A set of tendons is fished through the duct and the
concrete is poured. Once the concrete has hardened,
the tendons are tensioned by hydraulic jacks that
react (push) against the concrete member itself.
 When the tendons have stretched sufficiently,
according to the design specifications (see Hooke's
law), they are wedged in position and maintain
tension after the jacks are removed, transferring
pressure to the concrete. The duct is then grouted to
protect the tendons from corrosion.
 This method is commonly used to create
monolithic slabs for house construction in
locations where expansive soils (sometimes
called adobe clay) create problems for the typical
perimeter foundation. All stresses from seasonal
expansion and contraction of the underlying soil
are taken into the entire tensioned slab, which
supports the building without significant flexure.
 Post-tensioning is also used in the construction
of various bridges, both after concrete is cured
after support by falsework and by the assembly
of prefabricated sections, as in the segmental
bridge.
 Unbonded post-tensioned concrete
 Unbonded post-tensioned concrete differs from bonded post-
tensioning by providing each individual cable permanent
freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this,
each individual tendon is coated with a grease (generally lithium
based) and covered by a plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion
process.[7] The transfer of tension to the concrete is achieved by
the steel cable acting against steel anchors embedded in the
perimeter of the slab. The main disadvantage over bonded post-
tensioning is the fact that a cable can destress itself and burst
out of the slab if damaged (such as during repair on the slab).
The advantages of this system over bonded post-tensioning are:
 The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor field
conditions (For example: shifting a group of 4 cables around an
opening by placing 2 on each side).
 The procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated.
 The ability to de-stress the tendons before attempting repair
work.[8]
 Prestressed concrete is the main material for floors in high-rise
buildings and the entire containment vessels of nuclear reactors.
 Unbonded post-tensioning tendons are commonly used in
parking garages as barrier cable.[9] Also, due to its ability to be
stressed and then de-stressed, it can be used to temporarily
repair a damaged building by holding up a damaged wall or floor
until permanent repairs can be made.
 The advantages of prestressed concrete include crack control
and lower construction costs; thinner slabs—especially important
in high rise buildings in which floor thickness savings can
translate into additional floors for the same (or lower) cost and
fewer joints, since the distance that can be spanned by post-
tensioned slabs exceeds that of reinforced constructions with the
same thickness.
 1. A large number of concrete structures (about 6% of the
building frame market) are precast. The individual
components are prefabricated off site then taken to site
where they are erected.
 2.Assembly of moulds:
 The reinforced cage is positioned in the partly assembled
mould, then the remaining mould section is completed.
 3. Mix being poured:
 Carefully specified concrete is placed into the mould. Many
precast works now employ computer controlled batching
plants.
 4. Compaction of concrete using poker vibrator:
 To ensure that optimum density is obtained and that
specified strengths are achieved, concrete is placed and
compacted using high-frequency external vibrators or
pokers.
 5. Precast concrete being moved to the storage area:
 Once an appropriate strength has been reached, the precast
units are moved to the storage area. Units are usually handled
within hours of casting as part of the rapid production cycle.
 The product exhibits a high degree of dimensional accuracy and
quality of finish. Economies of production are achieved through
the repetitive and automated process.
 6. Storage of high-quality units in works area:
 The finished precast components are stacked on clean battens or
plastic pads positioned to suit the design of the component.
Care is taken to keep the stacks vertical and to ensure that
battens are placed directly above one another within the stack.
 7. Transport to site:
 The components are delivered to site in a pre-determined
sequence to ensure that hardened concrete are ready for instant
erection.
 8. Erection at site: The components are erected straight from the
lorry. This leads to faster erection times with reduced on-site
activity.
 9. Finished building:

 Precast concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete
in a reusable mold or "form" which is then cured in a controlled
environment, transported to the construction site and lifted into place.
In contrast, standard concrete is poured into site-specific forms and
cured on site. Precast stone is distinguished from precast concrete by
using a fine aggregate in the mixture, so the final product approaches
the appearance of naturally occurring rock or stone.
 By producing precast concrete in a controlled environment (typically
referred to as a precast plant), the precast concrete is afforded the
opportunity to properly cure and be closely monitored by plant
employees. Using a precast concrete system offers many potential
advantages over onsite casting. Precast concrete production is
performed on ground level, which helps with safety throughout a
project. There is greater control over material quality and workmanship
in a precast plant compared to a construction site. The forms used in a
precast plant can be reused hundreds to thousands of times before they
have to be replaced, often making it cheaper than onsite casting when
looking at the cost per unit of formwork.[1]
 Many state and federal transportation projects in the United States
require precast concrete suppliers to be certified by either the
Architectural Precast Association (APA), National Precast Concrete
Association (NPCA) or Precast Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI).
There are many different types of precast
concrete forming systems for architectural
applications, differing in size, function, and
cost. Precast architectural panels are also
used to clad all or part of a building facades
or free-standing walls used for landscaping,
soundproofing, and security walls, and some
can be prestressed concrete structural
elements. Stormwater drainage, water and
sewage pipes, and tunnels make use of
precast concrete units.
 The following is a sampling of the numerous products that utilize
precast/prestressed concrete. While this is not a complete list, the majority of
precast/prestressed products typically fall under one or more of the following
categories:

 Building and site amenities

 Precast parking structure showing an interior column, girders and double-tee
structural floors. The two gray circles are covers to close the lifting anchor holes.
 Precast concrete building components and site amenities are used architecturally
as fireplace mantels, cladding, trim products, accessories and curtain walls.
Structural applications of precast concrete include foundations, beams, floors,
walls and other structural components. It is essential that each structural
component be designed and tested to withstand both the tensile and compressive
loads that the member will be subjected to over its lifespan.
 Multi-storey car parks are commonly constructed using precast concrete. The
constructions involve putting together precast parking parts which are multi-
storey structural wall panels, interior and exterior columns, structural floors,
girders, wall panels, stairs and slabs. These parts can be large; for example,
double-tee structural floor modules need to be lifted into place with the help of
precast concrete lifting anchor systems.
 Retaining walls
 Precast concrete provides manufacturers with the ability to produce a
wide range of engineered earth retaining systems. Products include:
commercial retaining walls, residential walls, sea walls,
 Sanitary and stormwater
 Sanitary and stormwater management products are structures designed
for underground installation. These precast concrete products include
stormwater detention vaults, catch basins and manholes.[8]
 Utility structures
 For communications, electrical, gas or steam systems, precast concrete
utility structures protect the vital connections and controls for utility
distribution. Precast concrete is nontoxic and environmentally safe.
Products include: hand holes, hollowcore products, light pole bases,
meter boxes, panel vaults, pull boxes, telecommunications structures,
transformer pads, transformer vaults, trenches, utility buildings, utility
vaults, utility poles, controlled environment vaults (CEVs,) and other
utility structures.[9]
 Water and wastewater products
 Precast water and wastewater products hold or contain
water, oil or other liquids for the purpose of further
processing into non-contaminating liquids and soil
products.

 Transportation and traffic-related products

 Precast concrete transportation products are used in the
construction, safety and site protection of road, airport
and railroad transportation systems. Products include: box
culverts, 3-sided culverts, bridge systems, railroad
crossings, railroad ties, sound walls/barriers, Jersey
barriers, tunnel segments, concrete barriers,
 Modular paving
 Modular paving is available in a rainbow of colors, shapes,
sizes and textures. These versatile precast concrete pieces
can be designed to mimic brick, stone or wood.[10]
 Specialized products
 Prefabrication is the practice of assembling
components of a structure in a factory or
other manufacturing site, and transporting
complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to
the construction site where the structure is to
be located. The term is used to distinguish
this process from the more conventional
construction practice of transporting the
basic materials to the construction site where
all assembly is carried out.
The most widely used form of prefabrication in building
and civil engineering is the use of prefabricated
concrete and prefabricated steel sections in
structures where a particular part or form is repeated
many times.
It can be difficult to construct the formwork required to
mould concrete components on site, and delivering
wet concrete to the site before it starts to set requires
precise time management.
Pouring concrete sections in a factory brings the
advantages of being able to re-use moulds and the
concrete can be mixed on the spot without having to
be transported to and pumped wet on a congested
construction site.
Prefabricating steel sections reduces on-site cutting
and welding costs as well as the associated hazards.
 Moving partial assemblies from a factory often costs less than
moving pre-production resources to each site
 Deploying resources on-site can add costs; prefabricating
assemblies can save costs by reducing on-site work
 Factory tools - jigs, cranes, conveyors, etc - can make
production faster and more precise
 Factory tools - shake tables, hydraulic testers, etc - can offer
added quality assurance
 Consistent indoor environments of factories eliminate most
impacts of weather on production
 Cranes and reusable factory supports can allow shapes and
sequences without expensive on-site falsework
 Higher-precision factory tools can aid more controlled
movement of building heat & air, for lower energy consumption
and healthier buildings
 Factory production can facilitate more optimal materials usage,
recycling, noise capture, dust capture, etc.
 Machine-mediated parts movement, and freedom from wind &
rain can improve construction safety
 Transportation costs may be higher for
voluminous prefabricated sections than for
their constituent materials, which can often
be packed more densely.
 Large prefabricated sections may require
heavy-duty cranes and precision
measurement and handling to place in
position.
 Off-Site fabrication is a process that incorporates
prefabrication and pre-assembly. The process
involves the design and manufacture of units or
modules, usually remote from the work site, and
the installation at the site to form the permanent
works at the site. In its fullest sense, off-site
fabrication requires a project strategy that will
change the orientation of the project process
from construction to manufacture to installation.
Examples of off-site fabrication are wall panels
for homes, wooden truss bridge spans, airport
control stations.
 Modular coordination is a concept of dimension and space,
in which buildings components are mensioned and
positioned in a term of basic unit or module.

 The full benefit of industrialization can be achieved only

by standardization.

 No effective standardization again is possible in a building

trade without dimensional coordination.

 Dimensional coordination is possible if the coordinating

dimensions of all parts, as well as the dimensions of the
building to be erected are in multiples of one basic
dimensional unit- The basic module.

 Such dimensional coordination is called modular

coordination.
  Reduced construction costs, especially when
combined with economy of
  Scale production (10%+)
  Much reduced construction time on site (50 to 60%)
  Increased profitability of the industry due to
economy of manufacturing scale
  Increased site productivity (up to 50%)
  Greater certainty of completion on time and to
budget
  Much reduced wastage in manufacture and on site
  Greater reliability and quality

 Modular coordination facilitates sustainable benefits
towards waste minimization and increases efficiency of
productivity in the construction industry.

 The speed with which a building is completed its key

advantage of modular coordination.

 The overall project construction timeline is decreased by

30 to 50 % because site preparation and module
fabrication processes occur simultaneously.

 Modular construction has to adhere to the same building

code requirements as traditional construction methods
and the same building materials and standards are utilized
to fabricate each module.

 All modules meet the building, safety and occupancy code

requirements and in many instances modular buildings
exceed local building specification. It would be more
successful integration of the manufacturing industry
through a good collaboration with the construction
industry.