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MOBILE RADIO ENVIRONMENT

AND SIGNAL DISTURBANCE
 Introduction ..
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 Question:

 What are reasons why wireless signals

are hard to send and receive?
 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation
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 The mobile radio channel places fundamental

limitations on the performance of wireless
communication systems
 Paths can vary from simple line-of-sight to ones that
are severely obstructed by buildings, mountains, and
foliage
 Radio channels are extremely random and difficult to
analyze
 The speed of motion also impacts how rapidly the
signal level fades as a mobile terminals moves about.
 Problems Unique to Wireless systems
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 Interference from other service providers

 Interference from other users (same network)
 CCI due to frequency reuse
 ACI due to Tx/Rx design limitations & large number of
users sharing finite BW
 Shadowing
 Obstructions to line-of-sight paths cause areas of weak
received signal strength
 Problems Unique to Wireless systems
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 Fading
 When no clear line-of-sight path exists, signals are received
that are reflections off obstructions and diffractions around
obstructions
 Multipath signals can be received that interfere with each
other
 Fixed Wireless Channel → random & unpredictable
 must be characterized in a statistical fashion
 field measurements often needed to characterize radio
channel performance
 Mechanisms that affect the radio propagation ..
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 Reflection
 Diffraction
 Scattering
 In urban areas, there is no direct line-of-sight path between:
 the transmitter and the receiver, and where the presence of
high- rise buildings causes severe diffraction loss.
 Multiple reflections cause multi-path fading
 Reflection, Diffraction, Scattering
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 Reflections arise when the plane waves are incident upon a

surface with dimensions that are very large compared to the
wavelength
 Diffraction occurs according to Huygens's principle when there
is an obstruction between the transmitter and receiver
antennas, and secondary waves are generated behind the
obstructing body
 Scattering occurs when the plane waves are incident upon an
object whose dimensions are on the order of a wavelength or
less, and causes the energy to be redirected in many
directions.
 Mobile Radio Propagation Environment
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 The relative importance of these three propagation

mechanisms depends on the particular propagation scenario.
 As a result of the above three mechanisms, macro cellular
radio propagation can be roughly characterized by three
nearly independent phenomenon;
 Path loss variation with distance (Large Scale Propagation )
 Slow log-normal shadowing (Medium Scale Propagation )
 Fast multipath fading. (Small Scale Propagation )

 Each of these phenomenon is caused by a different underlying

physical principle and each must be accounted for when
designing and evaluating the performance of a cellular
system.
 Path Loss: Models of "large-scale effects"
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 location 1, free space loss (Line of Sight) is likely to

give an accurate estimate of path loss.
 location 2, a strong line-of-sight is present, but ground
reflections can significantly influence path loss. The
plane earth loss (2-Ray Model) model appears
appropriate.
10

 location 3, plane earth loss needs to be

corrected for significant diffraction losses,
caused by trees cutting into the direct line of
sight.
 location 4, a simple diffraction model is likely
to give an accurate estimate of path loss.
 location 5, loss prediction fairly difficult and
unreliable since multiple diffraction is involved
 Radio Propagation Mechanisms
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Line Of Sight (LOS) Non Line Of Sight (NLOS)

 Line of Sight (LOS)
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 Line-of-sight is the direct propagation of radio waves between

antennas that are visible to each other.

 The received signal is directly received at the receiver the

effects such as reflection, diffraction and scattering doesn’t
affect the signal reception that much.

 Radio signals can travel through many non-metallic objects,

radio can be picked up through walls. This is still line-of-sight
propagation.

 Examples would include propagation between a satellite and

a ground antenna or reception of television signals from a
local TV transmitter.
 Free Space Propagation Model
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 Free space propagation model is used to predict:

 Received Signal Strength when the transmitter and

receiver have a clear, unobstructed LoS between them.

 The free space propagation model assumes a transmit antenna

and a receive antenna to be located in an otherwise empty
environment. Neither absorbing obstacles nor reflecting
surfaces are considered. In particular, the influence of the earth
surface is assumed to be entirely absent.

 Satellite communication systems and microwave line-of-sight

radio links typically undergo free space propagation.
 Free Space Propagation Model
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 Path Loss
 Signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in
dB and defined as the difference (in dB) between the
effective transmitter power and received power.
 Friis is an application of the standard “Free Space
Propagation Model “
 It
gives the Median Path Loss in dB ( exclusive of
Antenna Gains and other losses )
 Friis Free Space Equation
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 Pt Transmitted power,
 Pr(d) Received power
 Gt Transmitter antenna gain,
 Gr Receiver antenna gain,
 d T-R separation distance (m)
 L System loss factor not related to propagation
system losses (antennas, transmission lines between equipment
and antennas, atmosphere, etc.)
 L = 1 for zero loss

 Signal fades in proportion to d2

 Friis Free Space Equation
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 The ideal conditions assumed for this model are

almost never achieved in ordinary terrestrial
communications, due to obstructions, reflections from
buildings, and most importantly reflections from the
ground.

 The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor

for “Pr ” for values of “d” which are in the far-field
of the “Transmitting antenna
 Free Space Propagation Model
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 Thus in practice, power can be measured at d0 and predicted

at d using the relation

where d>= d0 >= df

 df is Fraunhofer distance which complies:

df =2D2/
where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna
 Typically Path Loss Exponents
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 Example 1
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 Find the far-field distance for an antenna with

maximum dimension of 1 m and operating
frequency of 900 MHz.

Given;
Largest dimension of antenna, D = 1m
Operating freq, f = 900MHz,
Far-field distance
 Example 2
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 (a) If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power,

express the transmit power in units of dBm, and
dBW.
 (b) If 50 watts is applied to a unity gain antenna
with a 900 MHz carrier frequency, find the
received power in dBm at a free space distance of
100 m from the antenna, What is Pr (10 km)?
Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
22

Solution
(a) TX power in dBm = 10 log10 (Pt/1mW)
= 10 log10 (50/1mW)=47 dBm

Tx power in dBW = 10 log10 (Pt/1W)

= 10 log10(50)=17 dBW

(b)
Rx power = Pr(d) = Pt Gt Gr 2 / (4)2 d2 L
Wavelength,  = 0.3333333 , GT=Gr = 1, D=100 m, L=1
Pr(100 m) = 3.52167x10-06 W = 3.5x10-3 mW =10log (3.5*10-3)
= -24.5 dBm
Pr(10*1000 m) = 3.5*10-3 /10^4 = 3.5*10-7 mW
 Multipath Propagation (NLOS)
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 Multipath propagation
 Signal arrives at Rx through different paths
 Paths could arrive with different gains, phase, & delays
 Small distance variation can have large amplitude variation

 Physical Phenomena behind Multipath Propagation

 Reflection (R), Diffraction (D), Scattering (S)
 Small Scale Multipath fading
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 Multipath creates small scale fading effects:

 Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel
distance or time interval
 Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler
shifts on different multipath signals
 Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath
propagation delays
25

 Factors influence small scale fading

 Multipath propagation – result in multiple version of
transmitted signal
 Speed of mobile – result in random frequency
modulation due to different Doppler shifts
 Speed of surrounding – if the surrounding objects move
at a greater rate than the mobile
 The transmission bandwidth of the signal – if the
transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the
bandwidth of the multipath channel
 Physical Phenomena for Multipath
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 Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a surface

that is large relative to the wavelength of the signal
 Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable
body that is large compared to wavelength of
radio wave. (Waves bending around sharp edges
of objects)
 Scattering – occurs when incoming signal hits an
object whose size is in the order of the wavelength
of the signal or less
 Reflections
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 Reflection occurs when RF energy is incident upon a

boundary between two materials (e.g. air/ground)
with different electrical characteristics
 Example: reflections from earth and buildings

 These reflections may interfere with the original

signal constructively or destructively
 Reflections
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 Upon reflection or transmission, a ray attenuates by factors

that depend on the frequency, the angle of incidence, and the
nature of the medium (its material properties, thickness
homogeneity, etc.)

 The amount of reflection depends on the reflecting material.

 Smooth metal surfaces of good electrical conductivity are
efficient reflectors of radio waves.
 The surface of the Earth itself is a fairly good reflector...
 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model
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 a model where the receiving antenna sees a direct

path signal as well as a signal reflected off the
ground.
 In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path
between the base station and mobile is rarely the
only physical path for propagation
− Hence the free space propagation model in most cases
is inaccurate when used alone
 Hence we use the 2 Ray GRM
− It considers both- direct path and ground reflected
propagation path between transmitter and receiver
 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model
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 This was found reasonably accurate for predicting large

scale signal strength over distances of several kilometers
for mobile radio systems using tall towers ( heights above
50 m )
 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model
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 Good for systems that use tall towers (over 50 m

tall)
 Good for line-of-sight microcell systems in urban
environments

 ETOT is the electric field that results from a combination

of a direct line-of-sight path and a ground reflected
path
 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model
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 The maximum T-R separation distance ( In most mobile

communication systems ) is only a few tens of kilometers, and
the earth may be assumed to be flat.

 ETOT =The total received E-field,

 ELOS=The direct line-of-sight component
 Eg =The ground reflected component,
33
34

 Triangle ABC dd  (ht  hr )  d

2 2 2

dd  [( ht  hr ) 2  d 2 ]1/ 2
 2  ht  hr 
1/ 2
2

dd  d 1  2


  d 
 1  ht  hr 2 
 Binomial series, dd = d 1   
 2  d  

 1  ht  hr 2 
 Same step for triangle BCD dr  d 1   
 2  d  
35

 The path difference between the reflected wave Er

and direct wave Ed is 2hthr
dr  dd 
d
 Phase difference = path different x wave number

  (dr  dd ) * 
2hthr 2 4hthr
  
d  d
36

Received power 4hthr


Pr  4 Pd sin 2

2d
 Pd = power received in free space
 So, power received for plane earth reflection:

   2  2hthr 
2

Pr  4 PtGtGr  sin  
 4d   d 
sin    Since ht, hr <<d,  is small
2
 hthr 
Pr  PtGtGr 2 
 d 
 Example 3
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 Consider GSM900 cellular radio system with 20W

transmitted power from Base Station Transceiver
(BTS). The gain of BTS and Mobile Station (MS)
antenna are 8dB and 2dB respectively. The BTS is
located 10km away from MS and the height of the
antenna for BTS and MS are 200m and 3m
respectively. By assuming plane earth loss between
BTS and MS, calculate the received signal level at MS
 Solution
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 Given
f = 900MHz d = 10km
Pt = 20W = 43dBm ht = 200m
GT=8dB = 6.31 hr = 3m
GR = 2dB = 1.58
 So, the received signal at MS
2
 hthr 
Pr  PtGtGr 2   7.18nW
 d 
2
 hthr 
PR(dB)  PT  GT  GR  10 log  2   51.44dBm
 d 
 Diffraction
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 Occurs when the radio path between sender and receiver is

obstructed by an impenetrable body and by a surface with
sharp irregularities (edges)
 The received field strength decreases rapidly as a receiver
moves deeper into the obstructed (shadowed) region, the
diffraction field still exists and often has sufficient strength to
produce a useful signal.
 Diffraction explains how radio signals can travel urban and
rural environments without a line-of-sight path
 Diffraction
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 The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by Huygen's

principle, which states that all points on a wave front can be
considered as point sources for the production of secondary
wavelets, and that these 'wavelets combine to produce a new
wave front in the direction of propagation

 The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed region

is the vector sum of the electric field components of all the
secondary wavelets in the space around the obstacle.
 Scattering
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 The medium which the wave travels consists of objects with

dimensions smaller than the wavelength and where the number
of obstacles per unit volume is large – rough surfaces, small
objects, foliage, street signs, lamp posts.
 Generally difficult to model because the environmental
conditions that cause it are complex
 Modeling “position of every street sign” is not feasible.
 Illustration ..
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 Typical large-scale path loss

Source: Rappaport and A. Goldsmith books

 Doppler Effect
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 Doppler effect occurs when transmitter and

receiver have relative velocity

away towards
 Resting sound source
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f s  fo

Frequency fs V=340m/s Frequency fo

source observer
at rest at rest
 Sound source moving toward
46
observer
fo  f s
Observer hears
increased pitch
(shorter wave length)

Frequency fo
Frequency fs

source observer
at rest
 Sound source moving away from
47
observer
fo  f s
Observer hears
decreased pitch
(longer wave length)

Frequency fo Frequency fs

observer
source
at rest
48
Doppler Shift Calculation
 Δl is small enough to consider = 1
 v = speed of mobile, λ= carrier wavelength
 fd is +/-ve when moving towards/away the wave

2l 2 d cos( )
Phase difference,   
 
1  v
Doppler Shift, f d   cos( )
2 t 
49

 Doppler Effect: When a wave source and a receiver are moving towards
each other, the frequency of the received signal will not be the same as
the source.
 When they are moving toward each other, the frequency of the
received signal is higher than the source.
f R  fC  f D
 When they are opposing each other, the frequency decreases.

f R  fC  f D
MS Moving
Doppler Shift in frequency: speed v
v 
fD  cos
 Signal
where v is the moving speed,
 is the wavelength of carrier.
 Example 4
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 Consider a transmitter which Solution:

radiates a sinusoidal carrier
frequency of 1850 MHz. For a
vehicle moving 96 km/h,
compute the received carrier
frequency if the mobile is
moving
(a) directly towards transmitter
(b) Directly away from the
transmitter
(c) In a direction perpendicular to
the direction of arrival of the
transmitted signal
fc = 1850 MHz
λ= c / f
λ = 0.162 m
v = 96 km/h= 26.67 m/s
(a) f = fc+ fd = 1850.00016 MHz
(b) f = fc – fd = 1849.999834 MHz
(c) In this case, θ =90o, cos θ = 0,
And there is no Doppler shift.
f = fc (No Doppler frequency)