Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
MS ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
2
RECAP: Linear System …Input-Output Description
How to develop a mathematical equation to describe
the zero-state response of linear systems
The initial state is assumed implicitly to be zero and the
output is excited exclusively by the input
Consider first SISO linear systems:
3
Input-Output Description...
• If a linear system has p input terminals and q output
terminals then (2.4) can be extended to
t
∫ t0
G(t , τ) u(τ) dτ (2.5)
• where
4
Input-Output Description...
• and
• gij (t, τ) is the response at time t at the ith output
terminal due to an impulse applied at time τ at the jth
input terminal, the inputs at other terminals being
identically zero
• That is gij (t, τ) is the impulse reponse between the jth
input terminal and the ith output terminal
• Thus G is called the impulse response matrix of the
system
• Note again: If a system is described by (2.5), the
system is linear, relaxed at t0 and causal
5
State-Space Description
• Every linear, lumped system can be described by a
set of equations of the form
• where
• For a p-input q-output system, u is a p x 1 vector and
y is a q x 1 vector
• (and for n state variables) in order for the matrices
in (2.6) and (2.7) to be compatible, A, B , C and D
must be n x n, n x p, q x n and q x p matrices
6
Notation :=
• A := B A, by definition, equals B
• A =: B B, by definition, equals A
• A…nxn
• B…nxp
• C…qxn
• D…qxp
7
State-Space Description…
• The four matrices are all functions of time or time-
varying matrices
• In fact Equation (2.6) consists of n first-order
differential equations
• In other words,
• if the initial state and the input are the same, no
matter at what time they are applied, the output
waveform will always be the same
• Therefore for time-invariant systems we can always
assume, without loss of generality, that t0 = 0
11
Linear Time-invariant (LTI) Systems …
• Time invariance is defined for systems, not for signals
• Signals are mostly time-varying
• If a signal is time-invariant such as u(t) = 1, for all t , then
it is a very simple or trivial signal
• The characteristics of time-invariant systems must be
independent of time
• For example, the network in Fig 2.2 is time-invariant if Ri,
Li and Ci are constants
•
12
Linear Time-invariant (LTI) Systems …
• Some physical systems must be modeled as
• time-varying systems
• For example:
• A burning rocket is a time-varying system because its
mass decreases rapidly with time
• Although the performance of an automobile or TV set
may deteriorate over a long period of time, their
characteristics do not change appreciably in the first
couple of years
• Thus a large number of physical systems can be
modeled as time-invariant systems over a limited
period of time
13
Input-Output Description
• The zero-state response of a linear system can be
described by (2.4)
16
Example 2.3
• Consider the unity feedback system of Fig 2.5 ( a)
17
18
19
Transfer Function Matrix
• The Laplace transform is an important tool in LTI
systems. Let
be the Laplace transform of y(t), that is
20
21
22
Transfer Function Matrix
where
23
Transfer Function Matrix …
24
Transfer Function Matrix …
• In analysis and design, it is simpler to use algebraic
equations than to use convolutions
• Thus (2.8) will rarely be used in the rest of the course
• For a p-input q-output system (2.10 ) can be
extended as
or
25
Transfer Function Matrix …
• Where
• Is the transfer function from the jth input to the ith
output
• The q x p matrix
26
Example 2.4
• Consider the unit time delay system of
• Example 2.2 y(t) = u(t – 1)
• Its impulse response is δ(t - 1)
• Therefore, its transfer function is
27
Rational Function
• In mathematics, a rational function is any function
which can be defined by a rational fraction,
• i.e. an algebraic fraction such that both the numerator
and the denominator are polynomials
28
Example 2.5
• Consider the feedback system of Fig 2.5 (a)
29
Example 2.5 …
• The transfer function from r to y can be computed
directly from the block diagram as
(2.12)
30
31
Example 2.5 …
• This transfer function is an irrational function of s
• This is so because feedback system is a distributed
system
32
Transfer function
33
Transfer function …
• Every rational transfer function can be expressed as
34
Transfer function …
• Improper rational transfer functions will amplify
high-frequency noise
• Which often exists in the real world
• Therefore
• Improper rational transfer functions rarely arise in
practice
•
35
Transfer Function: Poles and Zeros
• A real or complex number λ
• is called a pole of the proper transfer function
36
Transfer Function: Poles and Zeros …
• If N(s) and D(s) are coprime, that is have no common
factors of degree 1 or higher
• Then all roots of N(s) are zeros of
• And all roots of D(s) are poles of
• In terms of poles and zeros, the transfer function can
be expressed as
38
Transfer Function… Poles and Zeros
39
State Space Equation
• Every linear time invariant lumped system can be
described by a set of equations of the form
40
State Space Equation…
• which implies
41
State Space Equation…
• The equations also reveal the fact that the response
of a linear system can be decomposed as the zero-
state response and the zero-input response
• If the initial state x(0) is zero, then (2.15) reduces to
• For example
• [num,den] = ss2tf(a,b,c,d,1)
• computes the transfer matrix from the first input to
all outputs or equivalently, the first column of
43
Note
• The Laplace transform is not used in studying
• Linear time-varying systems
• The Laplace transform of g (t, τ) is a function of two
variables and
44
Op Amp Circuit Implementation
• Every linear time invariant (LTI) state-space
equation can be implemented using an operational
amplifier op-amp circuit
• Fig 2.6 shows two standard op-amp circuit elements
46
Linearization …
• Some of non-linear time varying physical systems
can be described by the non-linear differential
equation of the form
47
Linearization …
• Some non-linear equations however, can be
approximated by linear equations under certain
conditions
• Suppose that for some input function u0(t), and some
initial state,
• x0(t) is the solution of (2.19), that is
49
Linearization …
51
EXAMPLES
TO
ILLUSTRATE
HOW TO DEVELOP
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
AND
STATE-SPACE EQUATIONS
FOR
PHYSICAL SYSTEMS
52
Example 2.7
• Consider the mechanical system shown in Fig 2.8
• It consists of a block with mass m connected to a
wall through a spring
• We consider the applied force u to be the input and
• Displacement y from the equilibrium to be the
output
53
Example 2.7 …
• Task: Work out the derivation by hand
54
Example 2.8
• Consider a cart with an inverted pendulum hinged
on top of it as shown in Fig. 2.12
55
Example 2.9
• A communication satellite of mass m orbiting
around the earth is shown in Fig. 2.13
58
RLC Networks ..
• Resistors are memory less elements and their
currents or voltages should not be assigned as state
variables
59
Example 2.15
• Consider the network shown in Fig 2.15
61
Example 2.13
• Consider the network shown in Fig 2.17 (a) where T
is a tunnel diode with characteristics shown
63
Example 2.14
• Consider a unit-sampling-time delay system defined
by
64
Example 2.15
• Consider the discrete-time feedback system shown in
Fig 2.18 (a)
65
State-space Equations
• Every linear lumped discrete time system can be
described by
66
Example 2.16
• Consider a money market account in a brokerage
firm
• …..
• …..
• Task: Work out the derivation by hand
67
Learning
• Causality
• Lumpedness
• Linearity
• Time-invariance
• Mathematical equations to describe causal systems
– Summarized ahead
68
For Causal Systems
69
Summary
• Distributed systems cannot be described by finite-
dimensional state-space equations
• External description describes only zero-state
responses
• Thus whenever the description is used, systems are
implicitly assumed to be relaxed
• Or their initial conditions are assumed to be zero
70
Summary..
• The course covers mainly lumped linear time-
invariant systems
• For this class of systems, mostly the time-domain
description (A,B,C,D) is used in the in the internal
description and
• The frequency-domain (Laplace-domain) description
71
Summary..
72
End Problems
• 2.1
• 2.2
• 2.3
• 2.5
• 2.10
• 2.13
• 2.19
73