Quantitative Analysis

for Research
Muhammad Zaki Rashidi
 Sampling Methods

Lecture Week 5

2
 Overview
 Sampling techniques
 Determination of sample size
 Probability sampling
 Simple random sampling
 Stratified random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Cluster sampling
 Non-probability sampling
 Quota, judgment, convenience sampling
 Snowball sampling
 Errors in sampling
 Table of sample size

3
 Basics of sampling I

 A sample is a Samples offer many benefits:

“part of a whole  Save costs: Less expensive to study the
to show what the sample than the population.
rest is like”.  Save time: Less time needed to study the
 Sampling helps to
sample than the population .
determine the  Accuracy: Since sampling is done with
corresponding care and studies are conducted by
skilled and qualified interviewers, the
value of the results are expected to be accurate.
population and
 Destructive nature of elements: For
plays a vital role some elements, sampling is the way to
in marketing test, since tests destroy the element itself.
research.
Basics of sampling II

Limitations of Sampling Process

Sampling
 Demands more rigid Developing
Defining the
control in undertaking population a sampling
sample operation. Frame
 Minority and smallness in
number of sub-groups
Specifying Determining
often render study to be Sample Sample
suspected. Method Size
 Accuracy level may be
affected when data is
subjected to weighing.
SELECTING THE SAMPLE
 Sample results are good
approximations at best.
 Sampling: Step 1
Defining the Universe
 Universe or population is the
whole mass under study.
 How to define a universe:
 What constitutes the units of
analysis (HDB apartments)?
 What are the sampling units
(HDB apartments occupied in
the last three months)?
 What is the specific designation
of the units to be covered (HDB
in town area)?
 What time period does the data
refer to (December 31, 1995)
Sampling: Step 2
Establishing the Sampling
Frame
 A sample frame is the list of
all elements in the
population (such as
telephone directories,
electoral registers, club
membership etc.) from
which the samples are
drawn.
 A sample frame which does
not fully represent an intended
population will result in frame
error and affect the degree of
reliability of sample result.
Step - 3
Determination of Sample Size

 Sample size may be determined by using:

 Subjective methods (less sophisticated methods)
 The rule of thumb approach: eg. 5% of population
 Conventional approach: eg. Average of sample sizes of similar
other studies;
 Cost basis approach: The number that can be studied with the
available funds;
 Statistical formulae (more sophisticated methods)
 Confidence interval approach.
Conventional approach of Sample size determination using
Sample sizes used in different marketing research studies

TYPE OF STUDY MINIMUM TYPICAL

SIZE RANGE
Identifying a problem (e.g.market
segmentation) 500 1000-2500
Problem-solving (e.g., promotion) 200 300-500
Product tests 200 300-500
Advertising (TV, Radio, or print Media
per commercial or ad tested) 150 200-300
Test marketing 200 300-500
Test market audits 10 10-20
stores/outlets stores/outlets
Focus groups 2 groups 4-12 groups
 Sample size determination using statistical formulae:
The confidence interval approach

 To determine sample sizes using statistical formulae, researchers

use the confidence interval approach based on the following
factors:
 Desired level of data precision or accuracy;
 Amount of variability in the population (homogeneity);
 Level of confidence required in the estimates of population values.

 Availability of resources such as money, manpower and time

may prompt the researcher to modify the computed sample size.
 Students are encouraged to consult any standard marketing
research textbook to have an understanding of these formulae.
Step 4:
Specifying the sampling method
 Probability Sampling
 Every element in the target population or universe
[sampling frame] has equal probability of being chosen in
the sample for the survey being conducted.
 Scientific, operationally convenient and simple in theory.
 Results may be generalized.

 Non-Probability Sampling
 Every element in the universe [sampling frame] does not
have equal probability of being chosen in the sample.
 Operationally convenient and simple in theory.
 Results may not be generalized.
Probability sampling
Four types of probability sampling
 Appropriate for
homogeneous population
 Simple random sampling
 Requires the use of a random
number table.
 Systematic sampling
 Requires the sample frame
only,
 No random number table is
necessary
 Appropriate for
heterogeneous
population
 Stratified sampling
 Use of random number
table may be necessary
 Cluster sampling
 Use of random number
table may be necessary
Non-probability sampling
 Four types of non-probability sampling
techniques
 Very simple types, based on subjective criteria
 Convenient sampling
 Judgmental sampling
 More systematic and formal
 Quota sampling
 Special type
 Snowball Sampling
Simple Random Sampling

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
 Also called
random sampling 1 37 75 10 49 98 66 03 86 34 80 98 44 22 22 45 83 53 86 23 51
2 50 91 56 41 52 82 98 11 57 96 27 10 27 16 35 34 47 01 36 08
 Simplest method 3 99 14 23 50 21 01 03 25 79 07 80 54 55 41 12 15 15 03 68 56
4 70 72 01 00 33 25 19 16 23 58 03 78 47 43 77 88 15 02 55 67
of probability 5 18 46 06 49 47 32 58 08 75 29 63 66 89 09 22 35 97 74 30 80
sampling
6 65 76 34 11 33 60 95 03 53 72 06 78 28 14 51 78 76 45 26 45
7 83 76 95 25 70 60 13 32 52 11 87 38 49 01 82 84 99 02 64 00
8 58 90 07 84 20 98 57 93 36 65 10 71 83 93 42 46 34 61 44 01
9 54 74 67 11 15 78 21 96 43 14 11 22 74 17 02 54 51 78 76 76
10 56 81 92 73 40 07 20 05 26 63 57 86 48 51 59 15 46 09 75 64
Need to use
11 34 99 06 21 22 38 22 32 85 26 37 00 62 27 74 46 02 61 59 81
Random 12 02 26 92 27 95 87 59 38 18 30 95 38 36 78 23 20 19 65 48 50
Number Table 13 43 04 25 36 00 45 73 80 02 61 31 10 06 72 39 02 00 47 06 98
14 92 56 51 22 11 06 86 88 77 86 59 57 66 13 82 33 97 21 31 61
15 67 42 43 26 20 60 84 18 68 48 85 00 00 48 35 48 57 63 38 84
 How to Use Random Number Tables

________________________________________________
1. Assign a unique number to each population element in the
sampling frame. Start with serial number 1, or 01, or 001,
etc. upwards depending on the number of digits required.
2. Choose a random starting position.
3. Select serial numbers systematically across rows or down
columns.
4. Discard numbers that are not assigned to any population
element and ignore numbers that have already been
selected.
5. Repeat the selection process until the required number of
sample elements is selected.
 How to Use a Table of Random Numbers to Select a Sample
Your marketing research lecturer wants to randomly select 20 students from
your class of 100 students. Here is how he can do it using a random number table.
Step 1: Assign all the 100 members of the population a unique number.You may
identify each element by assigning a two-digit number. Assign 01 to the first name
on the list, and 00 to the last name. If this is done, then the task of selecting the
sample will be easier as you would be able to use a 2-digit random number table.
NAME NUMBER NAME NUMBER
Adam, Tan 01 Tan Teck Wah 42
……………… …………………… …
Carrol, Chan 08 Tay Thiam Soon 61
………………. … ……………….. …
Jerry Lewis 18 Teo Tai Meng 87
………………. … …………………. …
Lim Chin Nam 26 …………………… …
………………. … Yeo Teck Lan 99
Singh, Arun 30 Zailani bt Samat 00
 How to use random number table to select a random sample
Step 2: Select any starting point in the Random Number Table and find the first number that
corresponds to a number on the list of your population. In the example below, # 08 has been
chosen as the starting point and the first student chosen is Carol Chan.

Starting point: 10 09 73 25 33 76
move right to the end
of the row, then down 37 54 20 48 05 64
to the next row row; 08 42 26 89 53 19
move left to the end, 90 01 90 25 29 09
then down to the next
row, and so on. 12 80 79 99 70 80
66 06 57 47 17 34
31 06 01 08 05 45
Step 3: Move to the next number, 42 and select the person corresponding to that number into
the sample. #87 – Tan Teck Wah
Step 4: Continue to the next number that qualifies and select that person into the sample.
# 26 -- Jerry Lewis, followed by #89, #53 and #19
Step 5: After you have selected the student # 19, go to the next line and choose #90. Continue
in the same manner until the full sample is selected. If you encounter a number selected
earlier (e.g., 90, 06 in this example) simply skip over it and choose the next number.
 Systematic sampling
 Very similar to simple random sampling with one exception.
 In systematic sampling only one random number is needed throughout the
entire sampling process.
 To use systematic sampling, a researcher needs:
[i] a sampling frame of the population; and is needed.
[ii] a skip interval calculated as follows:
Skip interval = population list size
Sample size
 Names are selected using the skip interval.
 If a researcher were to select a sample of 1000 people using the local telephone
directory containing 215,000 listings as the sampling frame, skip interval is
[215,000/1000], or 215. The researcher can select every 215th name of the entire
directory [sampling frame], and select his sample.
 Example: How to Take a Systematic Sample
Step 1: Select a listing of the population, say the City Telephone Directory, from which to
sample. Remember that the list will have an acceptable level of sample frame error.

Step 2: Compute the skip interval by dividing the number of entries in the directory by the
desired sample size.
Example: 250,000 names in the phone book, desired a sample size of 2500,
So skip interval = every 100th name

Step 3: Using random number(s), determine a starting position for sampling the list.
Example: Select: Random number for page number. (page 01)
Select: Random number of column on that page. (col. 03)
Select: Random number for name position in that column (#38, say, A..Mahadeva)

Step 4: Apply the skip interval to determine which names on the list will be in the sample.
Example: A. Mahadeva (Skip 100 names), new name chosen is A Rahman b Ahmad.

Step 5: Consider the list as “circular”; that is, the first name on the list is now the initial name
you selected, and the last name is now the name just prior to the initially selected one.
Example: When you come to the end of the phone book names (Zs), just continue on
through the beginning (As).
Stratified sampling I
A three-stage process:
 Step 1- Divide the population into
homogeneous, mutually exclusive
and collectively exhaustive
subgroups or strata using some
stratification variable;
 Step 2- Select an independent
simple random sample from each
stratum.
 Step 3- Form the final sample by
consolidating all sample elements
chosen in step 2.
 May yield smaller standard errors of
estimators than does the simple
random sampling. Thus precision can
be gained with smaller sample sizes.
Stratified samples can be:
 Proportionate: involving the
selection of sample elements
from each stratum, such
that the ratio of sample
elements from each stratum
to the sample size equals
that of the population
elements within each
stratum to the total number
of population elements.
 Disproportionate: the
sample is disproportionate
when the above mentioned
ratio is unequal.
Selection of a proportionate Stratified Sample
To select a proportionate stratified sample of 20 members of the Island Video Club which has
100 members belonging to three language based groups of viewers i.e., English (E), Mandarin
(M) and Others (X).

Step 1: Identify each member from the membership list by his or her respective language groups
00 (E ) 20 (M) 40 (E ) 60 (X) 80 (M)
01 (E ) 21 (X) 41 (X) 61 (M) 81 (E )
02 ( X ) 22 (E ) 42 (X) 62 (M) 82 (E )
03 (E ) 23 (X) 43 (E ) 63 (E ) 83 (M)
04 (E ) 24 (E ) 44 (M) 64 (E ) 84 (X)
05 (E ) 25 (M) 45 (E ) 65 (X) 85 (E )
06 (M) 26 (E ) 46 (X) 66 (M) 86 (E )
07 (M) 27 (M) 47 (M) 67 (E ) 87 (M)
08 (E ) 28 (X) 48 (E ) 68 (M) 88 (X)
09 (E ) 29 (E ) 49 (E ) 69 (E ) 89 (E )
10 (M) 30 (E ) 50 (E ) 70 (E ) 90 (X)
11 (E ) 31 (E ) 51 (M) 71 (E ) 91 (E )
12 ( X ) 32 (E ) 52 (X) 72 (M) 92 (M)
13 (M) 33 (M) 53 (M) 73 (E ) 93 (E )
14 (E ) 34 (E ) 54 (E ) 74 (X) 94 (E )
15 (M) 35 (M) 55 (E ) 75 (E ) 95 (X)
16 (E ) 36 (E ) 56 (M) 76 (E ) 96 (E )
17 ( X ) 37 (E ) 57 (E ) 77 (M) 97 (E )
18 ( X ) 38 (X) 58 (M) 78 (M) 98 (M)
19 (M) 39 (X) 59 (M) 79 (E ) 99 (E )
 Selection of a proportionate stratified sample II

Step 2: Sub-divide the club members into three homogeneous sub-groups or strata by the
language groups: English, Mandarin and others.
EnglishLanguage Mandarin Language Other Language
Stratum Stratum Stratum .
00 22 40 64 82 06 35 66 02 42
01 24 43 67 85 07 44 68 12 46
03 26 45 69 86 10 47 72 17 52
04 29 48 70 89 13 51 77 18 60
05 30 49 71 91 15 53 78 21 65
08 31 50 73 93 19 56 80 23 74
09 32 54 75 94 20 58 83 28 84
11 34 55 76 96 25 59 87 38 88
14 36 57 79 97 27 61 92 39 90
16 37 63 81 99 33 62 98 41 95

1. Calculate the overall sampling fraction, f, in the following manner:

f = n = 20 = 1 = 0.2
N 100 5
where n = sample size and N = population size
 Selection of a proportionate stratified sample III

 Determine the number of sample elements (n1) to be selected from the English
language stratum. In this example, n1 = 50 x f = 50 x 0.2 =10. By using a simple
random sampling method [using a random number table] members whose numbers
are 01, 03, 16, 30, 43, 48, 50, 54, 55, 75, are selected.

 Next, determine the number of sample elements (n2) from the Mandarin language
stratum. In this example, n2 = 30 x f = 30 X 0.2 = 6. By using a simple random
sampling method as before, members having numbers 10,15, 27, 51, 59, 87 are
selected from the Mandarin language stratum.

 In the same manner, the number of sample elements (n3) from the ‘Other language’
stratum is calculated. In this example, n3 = 20 x f = 20 X 0.2 = 4. For this stratum,
members whose numbers are 17, 18, 28, 38 are selected’

 These three different sets of numbers are now aggregated to obtain the ultimate
stratified sample as shown below.
S = (01, 03, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 27, 28, 30, 38, 43, 48, 50, 51, 54, 55, 59, 75, 87)
Cluster sampling

 Is a type of sampling in which clusters or groups of

elements are sampled at the same time.
 Such a procedure is economic, and it retains the
characteristics of probability sampling.
 A two-step-process:
 Step 1- Defined population is divided into number of mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive subgroups or clusters;
 Step 2- Select an independent simple random sample of
clusters.
 One special type of cluster sampling is called area sampling, where
pieces of geographical areas are selected.
 Example : One-stage and two-stage Cluster sampling
Consider the same Island Video Club example involving 100 club members:

 Step 1: Sub-divide the club members into 5 clusters, each cluster containing 20 members.
Cluster
No. English Mandarin Others
1 00, 22, 40, 64, 82 06, 35, 66 02, 42
01, 24, 43, 67, 85 07, 44, 68 12, 46
2 03, 26, 45, 69, 86 10, 47, 72 17, 52
04, 29, 48, 70, 89 13, 51, 77 18, 60
3 05, 30, 49, 71, 91 15, 53, 78 21, 65
08, 31, 50, 73, 93 19, 56, 80 23, 74
4 09, 32, 54, 75, 94 20, 58, 83 28, 84
11, 34, 55, 76, 96 25, 59, 87 38, 88
5 14, 36, 57, 79, 97 27, 61, 92 39, 90
16, 37, 63, 81, 99 33, 62, 98 41, 95

 Step 2: Select one of the 5 clusters. If cluster 4 is selected, then all its elements (i.e. Club
Members with numbers 09, 11, 32, 34, 54, 55, 75, 76, 94, 96, 20, 25, 58, 59, 83, 87, 28, 38, 84,
88) are selected.

 Step 3: If a two-stage cluster sampling is desired, the researcher may randomly select 4 members
from each of the five clusters. In this case, the sample will be different from that shown in step 2
above.
 Stratified Sampling vs Cluster Sampling

Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling

1. The target population is sub-divided 1. The target population is sub-
into a few subgroups or strata, each divided into a large number of
containing a large number of elements. sub-population or clusters, each
containing a few elements.
2. Within each stratum, the elements are 2. Within each cluster, the elements
homogeneous. However, high degree of are heterogeneous. Between
heterogeneity exists between strata. clusters, there is a high degree of
homogeneity.
3. A sample element is selected each time. 3. A cluster is selected each time.
4. Less sampling error. 4. More prone to sampling error.
5. Objective is to increase precision. 5. Objective is to increase sampling
efficiency by decreasing cost.
 AREA SAMPLING
 A common form of cluster sampling where clusters consist of geographic areas, such as
districts, housing blocks or townships. Area sampling could be one-stage, two-stage, or
multi-stage.
How to Take an Area Sample Using Subdivisions
Your company wants to conduct a survey on the expected patronage of its new outlet in a new
housing estate. The company wants to use area sampling to select the sample households to be
interviewed. The sample may be drawn in the manner outlined below.
___________________________________________________________________________________
Step 1: Determine the geographic area to be surveyed, and identify its subdivisions. Each
subdivision cluster should be highly similar to all others. For example, choose ten housing
blocks within 2 kilometers of the proposed site [say, Model Town ] for your new retail outlet;
assign each a number.
Step 2: Decide on the use of one-step or two-step cluster sampling. Assume that you decide to
use a two-stage cluster sampling.
Step 3: Using random numbers, select the housing blocks to be sampled. Here, you select 4
blocks randomly, say numbers #102, #104, #106, and #108.
Step 4: Using some probability method of sample selection, select the households in each of the
chosen housing block to be included in the sample. Identify a random starting point (say,
apartment no. 103), instruct field workers to drop off the survey at every fifth house
(systematic sampling).
 Non-probability samples

 Convenience sampling
 Drawn at the convenience of the researcher. Common in exploratory
research. Does not lead to any conclusion.
 Judgmental sampling
 Sampling based on some judgment, gut-feelings or experience of the
researcher. Common in commercial marketing research projects. If
inference drawing is not necessary, these samples are quite useful.
 Quota sampling
 An extension of judgmental sampling. It is something like a two-stage
judgmental sampling. Quite difficult to draw.
 Snowball sampling
 Used in studies involving respondents who are rare to find. To start with, the
researcher compiles a short list of sample units from various sources. Each
of these respondents are contacted to provide names of other probable
respondents.
 Quota Sampling
 To select a quota sample comprising 3000 persons in country X using three control
characteristics: sex, age and level of education.
 Here, the three control characteristics are considered independently of one another.
In order to calculate the desired number of sample elements possessing the various
attributes of the specified control characteristics, the distribution pattern of the
general population in country X in terms of each control characteristics is examined.
Control
Characteristics Population Distribution Sample Elements .

Gender: .... Male...................... 50.7% Male 3000 x 50.7% = 1521

................. Female .................. 49.3% Female 3000 x 49.3% = 1479

Age: ......... 20-29 years ........... 13.4% 20-29 years 3000 x 13.4% = 402
................. 30-39 years ........... 53.3% 30-39 years 3000 x 52.3% = 1569
................. 40 years & over .... 33.3% 40 years & over 3000 x 34.3% = 1029

Religion: .. Christianity ........... 76.4% Christianity 3000 x 76.4% = 2292

................. Islam ..................... 14.8% Islam 3000 x 14.8% = 444
................. Hinduism .............. 6.6% Hinduism 3000 x 6.6% = 198
................. Others ................... 2.2% Others 3000 x 2.2% = 66
_________________________________________________________________________________
_
Sampling vs non-sampling errors

Sampling Error [SE] Non-sampling Error [NSE]

Very small sample Size

Larger sample size

Still larger sample

Complete census
Choosing probability vs. non-probability sampling

Probability Evaluation Criteria Non-probability

sampling sampling
Conclusive Nature of research Exploratory

Larger sampling Relative magnitude Larger non-

sampling
errors sampling vs. error
non-sampling error

High Population variability Low

[Heterogeneous]
[Homogeneous]

Favorable Statistical Considerations Unfavorable

High Sophistication Needed Low

Relatively Longer Time Relatively

shorter

High Budget Needed Low

 Choice of Sample Size - Large
Populations
Table 1 Sample Sizes
% Margin of Error 95% Confidence 99% Confidence
±1 9,604 16,590
±2 2,401 4,148
±3 1,068 1,844
±4 601 1,037
±5 385 664
±6 267 461
±7 196 339
±8 151 260
±9 119 250
± 10 97 166
Source :Parker & Rea, Designing and Conducting Research
 Choice of Sample Size - Small Populations

Sample Sizes
Table 2 95% Level of Confidence 99% Level of Confidence
N ± 3% ± 5% ± 10% ± 3% ± 5% ± 10%
500 250 218 81 250 250 124
1000 500 278 88 500 399 143
1500 624 306 91 750 460 150
2,000 696 323 92 959 498 154
3,000 788 341 94 1,142 544 158
5,000 880 357 95 1,347 586 161
10,000 965 370 96 1,556 622 164
20,000 1,014 377 96 1,687 642 165
50,000 1,045 382 96 1,777 655 166
100,000 1,058 383 96 1,809 659 166
Source : Parker & Rea, Designing and Conducting Research