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Chapter

21
Development,
Maturation, Aging,
and Death

Lecture Presentation
by Suzanne Long,
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Monroe Community College
Fertilization Begins When a Sperm and Egg Unite

 Sperm and egg unite 6–24 hours after intercourse


 Fertilization occurs in the upper third of the oviduct
 One sperm fertilizes one egg, forming a zygote
 Typical ejaculate: several hundred million sperm
 Only a few hundred to a thousand sperm make it to
the upper oviduct
 Many barriers and challenges on the sperm’s journey:
– Distance
– Vaginal pH
– Cervical mucus
– White blood cells
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 21.1

Optimal site
Oviduct of fertilization
Uterus

Secondary
oocyte

Head
Corona
Ovary radiata
Midpiece Sperm
Cytoplasm
Tail
Nucleus

Plasma
membrane
Cervix
First polar
body

Vagina

Zona
pellucida

a) The male gamete, or sperm. In this b) Fertilization. Fertilization generally c) The female gamete. The female gamete is
illustration, the size of a sperm relative takes place in the upper third of a secondary oocyte that is in an arrested
to the secondary oocyte has been the oviduct (Fallopian tube). state of stage II of meiosis.
greatly exaggerated.

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One Sperm Fertilizes the Egg

 Several hundred to a thousand sperm reach the


upper oviduct, but only one fertilizes the egg
 Fertilization
– Acrosome—in head of sperm, digestive enzymes that
penetrate the egg
– Sperm proteins lock with egg membrane receptors
– Zona pellucida becomes impermeable to other sperm
 Sperm actually penetrates the secondary oocyte,
which then completes meiosis, forming haploid ovum
 Fertilization occurs when sperm nucleus fuses with
ovum nucleus, forming diploid zygote
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 21.2

Sperm
Corona radiata

Secondary oocyte
First polar body
Acrosome
Sperm nucleus releases enzymes.

Acrosome
Oocyte and sperm
plasma membranes fuse.

Granulosa cells
of corona radiata

Granules release
Zona pellucida
enzymes that make the
zona pellucida impenetrable.
Oocyte plasma
membrane

Granule Sperm nucleus engulfed


by oocyte cytoplasm.
Oocyte
cytoplasm

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Figure 21.3

Egg nucleus

Sperm nucleus Sperm nucleus Fusion of egg and


sperm nuclei

Second
meiotic
division
First polar body Polar bodies
(may divide)

a) A sperm nucleus has just entered the b) Completion of meiosis yields an c) The nuclei of the ovum
secondary oocyte, triggering ovum (egg) with a haploid nucleus and sperm fuse, and the
completion of meiosis II. and another polar body. If it has not polar bodies die. A single
already regressed, the original polar diploid cell called the zygote
body may divide as well. is formed, and fertilization
is complete.

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Twins May Be Fraternal or Identical

 Fraternal twins:
– Ovulation of more than any one oocyte, each of which
is fertilized by different sperm
– No more similar than any two siblings
– May be different genders
 Identical twins:
– One oocyte fertilized
– Split into two pre-embryos before 16-cell stage
– Same gender, look alike

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Figure 21.4

a) Fraternal twins arise when two b) Identical twins arise when a


eggs are ovulated and fertilized zygote divides in two during
in the same monthly cycle. development.

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Developmental Processes: Cleavage, Growth,
Differentiation, and Morphogenesis
1. Cleavage
a. Begins as series of cell divisions without cell growth
b. Produces a ball of identical cells
c. Occurs up to about day four after fertilization
d. Occurs entirely within the oviduct
2. Growth
a. Begins significantly at implantation
b. Single cell at fertilization grows to trillion cells at
birth
c. Growth in number of cells and size of cells results in
increase in overall size
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Developmental Processes: Cleavage, Growth,
Differentiation, and Morphogenesis
3. Differentiation
a. Individual cells take on specialized forms and
functions
4. Morphogenesis
a. There are changes in shape and form
b. Physical development of organism takes place
c. Ongoing
d. At implantation, growth in size occurs

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Pre-Embryonic Development: The First Two Weeks

 Conceptus travels through oviduct


 Growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis begin
– Morula (ball of 32 identical cells)—results from
cleavage
– Blastocyst (hollow ball with inner cell mass that will
become the embryo)—results from differentiation
– Implantation occurs as the blastocyst burrows into
the endometrium day six or seven post-fertilization
– Embyronic disk (destined to become the embryo)
develops—end of pre-embryonic period

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Figure 21.5
Zygote

Diploid
nucleus

Zona
pellucida
Oviduct

Morula

Ovary

Blastocyst
Inner cell
mass
Hollow cavity
Trophoblast

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Pre-Embryonic Development

 Ectopic pregnancy
– Occurs when blastocyst implants in an oviduct prior to
reaching the uterus
– Oviduct is not large enough to support the
development of a full-term baby
– Ectopic pregnancies are often terminated to protect
the health of the mother

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Figure 21.6

Amniotic cavity

Ectoderm

Endometrium Cells derived


from trophoblast Endoderm

Inner Amniotic Yolk sac Embryonic


cell cavity disk
mass
Trophoblast
Blastocyst

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Embryonic Development: Weeks Three to Eight

 Rapid growth, differentiation, morphogenesis


 All organs, organ systems are established by end of
embryonic period
 Embryonic development occurs beginning of week
three until end of week eight

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Tissues and Organs Derive from Three Germ Layers

 Ectoderm: outermost layer


– Becomes epidermis, nervous system, hair, nails, tooth
enamel, parts of eye
 Mesoderm: middle layer
– Becomes muscle, connective tissue, bone, kidneys,
ureters, testes, ovaries
 Endoderm: innermost layer
– Becomes liver, pancreas, alveoli, bladder lining, lining
of urethra, vagina

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Figure 21.7

Trophoblast Amniotic
cell cavity

Ectoderm

Mesoderm Embryonic
disk

Endoderm

Endometrial
cells
Yolk sac

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Table 21.1

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Extra-Embryonic Membranes

 Develop early in embryonic development


 Amnion
– Lines amniotic cavity, is filled with amniotic fluid
– Cushions the fetus
 Allantois
– Temporary, helps form blood vessels of umbilical cord
 Yolk sac
– Can be source of assorted cells for organ development
 Chorion
– Makes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which
supports pregnancy for the first three months
– Forms structures that will become part of placenta
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The Placenta and Umbilical Cord

 Development
– Chorion digests into endometrium, creating pool of
blood
– Placenta seals off the pool and projects chorionic villi
into maternal blood
– Villi contain blood capillaries connected through the
umbilical vessels to the fetus
 Umbilical cord: two-way life line, connects placenta
to embryo’s circulation

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The Placenta and Umbilical Cord

 Functions
– Filters nutrients, waste, and antibodies for the fetus
without mixing mother and fetal circulations
– This is the site of nutrient and gas exchange between
embryo and mother
– Some toxins or viruses may pass through:
– Alcohol, cocaine, HIV
– Endocrine
– Initially produces hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin
– Later produces estrogen and progesterone

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Figure 21.8

Fetal portion Maternal portion


of placenta of placenta
(chorion) (endometrium)
Placenta

Yolk sac

Amniotic cavity Fetal arteriole


containing
amniotic fluid
Fetal venule
Umbilical cord

Amnion
Uterus
Umbilical cord

Amnion
Connection
to yolk sac
Cavity of uterus

Umbilical Umbilical Pool of Chorionic Maternal Maternal


arteries vein maternal villus vein artery
blood containing
fetal capillaries

a) The fetus is bathed in amniotic fluid within b) A closer view of portions of the placenta and umbilical cord, showing how
the amnion. Its only connection to the mother nutrients and gases are exchanged between maternal and fetal blood
is the umbilical cord. without mixing.

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The Embryo Develops Rapidly

 Day 15
– Embryonic disk elongates along one axis
– Primitive streak appears in embryonic disk
 Days 19–24
– Neural tube develops: becomes brain and spinal cord
– Pharyngeal arches develop
– Somites (segments develop): bone, muscle, skin
 End of week four
– Heart is beginning to develop
– Eye development begins
– Limb buds appear
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Figure 21.9

Primitive Neural groove Future brain Pharyngeal arches


streak
Somites

Day 14 Day 15 Days 19–23 Day 25

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Figure 21.10

Week 4 Yolk sac


Embryo Actual length
Connecting stalk

Forebrain
Future lens

Pharyngeal arches
Developing heart
Upper limb bud
Somites
Neural tube forming
Lower limb bud
Tail

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Figure 21.11

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Animation: Embryonic Development

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Gender Development

 Y chromosome gene for sex-determining region Y


(SRY) is activated
 Testes-determining factor is synthesized from SRY
gene and will initiate development of the testes
 Testes secrete two hormones
1. Testosterone stimulates the further development of
male genitalia
2. Anti-Mullerian hormone suppresses development of
female external and internal genitalia
 Absence of Y chromosome results in female
development
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Figure 21.12
Bud

Urogenital groove Labioscrotal swelling

Y chromosome Y chromosome
present 6 weeks absent

10 weeks

Development requires
Development does
testosterone from
not require hormones.
developing testes.

Vaginal
Testes
opening

Birth approaching
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Fetal Development: Nine Weeks to Birth
Months Three and Four
 Eight weeks: marks the transition from embryonic to
fetal development
 Months three and four
– Organ development
– Beginnings of organ function
– Kidneys, liver, spleen
– Cartilaginous skeleton is replaced with bone
– Bone marrow begins producing red blood cells
– Face develops
– There is rapid growth

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Figure 21.13

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Fetal Development: Nine Weeks to Birth
Months Five and Six
 Months five and six
– Fetal movement begins
– Fetal heartbeat can be heard with stethoscope
– Fetus responds to external sounds
– Lungs produce surfactant, significant for survival
outside of mother
– Survival is possible outside mother
 End of six months marks end of second trimester

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Fetal Development: Nine Weeks to Birth
Months Seven through Nine
 Months seven through nine (third trimester)
– There is rapid growth and maturation
– Fetal activity increases
– Fetus prepares for life “on the outside”
– Lungs and digestive tract are ready to function
 Average size at birth
– 20 inches in length, 6–7.5 lbs.

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Birth and the Early Postnatal Period, Labor Ends
in Delivery
 Labor is initiated by hormones secreted by maturing
fetus
 Uterus begins to contract, and contractions
strengthen with continuous positive feedback
 Stages of labor
– Stage 1: dilation of cervix
– Stage 2: expulsion of fetus (delivery)
– Stage 3: afterbirth—expulsion of placenta
 Cesarean delivery
– Surgical delivery of baby

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Figure 21.14
Placenta

Urinary bladder Ruptured


Pubic bone amnion

Urethra

Vagina

Cervix
9-month-old fetus
Rectum

a) 9-month-old fetus. As birth approaches, b) Stage 1: dilation. The cervical opening widens.
the fetus usually is positioned with the head The amnion may break at this stage.
down and toward the cervix.

Placenta

Uterus
Umbilical
cord

c) Stage 2: expulsion. The fetus passes headfirst d) Stage 3: afterbirth. The placenta detaches
through the cervical canal and the vagina. from the uterus and is expelled along with the
remainder of the umbilical cord.
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The Transition from Fetus to Newborn

 Taking the first breath


– Pulmonary surfactants are necessary for alveoli to
expand and fill with air
 Changes in cardiovascular system
– Umbilical circulation is cut off
– Ductus venosus regresses to connective tissue
– Foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus close in
days/weeks, causing blood to go through the lungs
instead of bypassing them
– All blood from the digestive tract goes to the liver

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Figure 21.15
High oxygenation Moderate oxygenation Low oxygenation Very low oxygenation

Aorta

Pulmonary artery Ductus arteriosus


(becomes connective
Superior tissue)
vena cava

Lung Foramen ovale


(closes shortly after
Right atrium birth)

Right
ventricle

Inferior
vena cava

Ductus venosus
(becomes connective
tissue)

Liver

Umbilical vein
Hepatic (becomes connective
portal vein tissue)
(from digestive
organs)

Umbilical
cord

Umbilical arteries
(become connective
tissue)

a) Fetal circulation. b) Circulation after birth.


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Lactation Produces Milk to Nourish the Newborn

 Endocrine control of lactation:


– Estrogen and progesterone cause breast
enlargement during pregnancy
– Prolactin stimulates milk production
– Oxytocin stimulates smooth muscle contractions that
cause ejection of milk
 Colostrum
– Watery milk is produced the first few days after birth
– It is rich in antibodies

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Maturation from Birth to Adulthood

 Neonatal period (first month)


 Infancy (2 to 15 months)
 Childhood (16 months to 12 years)
 Adolescence (15 to 20 years)
 Adulthood (>20 years)

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The Neonatal Period: A Helpless Time

 Nervous system and muscular system are immature


 Movement is primarily reflexes
 There is inability to hold up the head
 Eyes are open, but somewhat unfocused
 Aware of and responsive to the environment
 Unable to retain long-term memories
 More sensitive to higher-pitched tones
 What neonates do best:
– Suckling
– Urinating
– Defecating
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Infancy: Rapid Development and Maturation of
Organ Systems
 Two months—15 months
– Weight triples
– There is a disproportionately large increase in muscle
mass and strength
– There is rapid growth of brain, primarily the cerebral
cortex
– First teeth appear at about 6 months, with all 20 by
1 year
– Solid foods start at 6 months
– Around 14 months, walking starts
– Sleeps a lot
– Vaccination schedules are designed for the maturing
immune system
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Childhood: Continued Development and Growth

 15 months—12 years
– There is continued growth of all systems
– Brain reaches 95% of its final size
– Immune system continues to mature
– Body form alters:
– long bones of arms and legs lengthen
– lumbar curve develops in the back
– abdominal musculature strengthens
– body form becomes adult-like
– Periods of slow growth are punctuated with growth
spurts
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Adolescence: The Transition to Adulthood

 Final growth spurt


 Rapid growth may lead to temporary awkwardness
and loss of coordination
 Skeletal and muscular systems experience greatest
rate of growth
 Major organ growth in lungs, kidneys, stomach
 Puberty: maturation of the reproductive system
– Menarche: onset of menstruation in girls
– Nocturnal emissions: reflex discharge of semen
during sleep in boys

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Adolescence: The Transition to Adulthood

 Onset of puberty
– Is initiated by the release of GnRH (gonadotropin
releasing hormone) by the hypothalamus
– GnRH stimulates the secretion of FSH and LH from
anterior pituitary
– FSH and LH stimulate the production of sex
hormones and the maturation of sex organs and
secondary sex characteristics
 Brain: the last organ to reach full maturity

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Figure 21.16

2 3 newborn 2 5 13 22 80
months months years years years years years

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Table 21.2

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Aging

 Aging: the process of change associated with the


passage of time
 Senescence: the progressive deterioration of
organs and multiple organ systems over time
 Longevity: how long a person lives
 Though life spans increased throughout the 1900s,
this was due to a reduction in deaths by accident
and disease, NOT due to slowing of the aging
process

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What Causes Aging?

 Three hypotheses:
1. Internal genetically determined program that counts
finite number of cell divisions, thus determining cell
death
2. Accumulation of cell damage or errors limits cells’
ability to repair themselves
– Damage is accelerated by oxygen-free radicals
3. Aging is a whole-body process; all systems are
interdependent and the decline in function of a
critical body system may lead to parallel
senescence of other systems

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Figure 21.17

a) Rolling Stones’ Mick Jagger b) Mick Jagger at age 72, in 2015.


at age 23, in 1967.

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An Internal Cellular Program Counts Cell Divisions

 Most cells cannot divide indefinitely


– 50–90 cell divisions is the norm
 Chromosomes lose DNA from the telomeres (ends)
with each round of replication
 This loss of telomeres eventually erodes the vital
DNA, causing the loss of genetic information
 Cancer cells can continue to divide because they
have a rebuilding enzyme called telomerase
 Questions:
1. Could telomerase be an anti-aging drug?
2. Could antitelomerase be used to treat cancer?
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Figure 21.18

Useful gene Telomere section


section of DNA of DNA

Nucleotides
lost from
telomere

Old (template) Newly formed


strand strand

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Cells Become Damaged Beyond Repair

 Damage is accumulated in DNA over time


 Damage is done by free radicals
 How long cells live is a balance between the
following:
– How often damage occurs
– How much of it can be repaired
 Will antioxidant vitamins slow the aging process?

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Aging Is a Whole-Body Process

 Interdependency of organ systems:


– A decline in the function of any one system eventually
impairs the function of the others
– Aging may be due to a specific type of tissue change
that affects many organs at once

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Body Systems Age at Different Rates—
Musculoskeletal System and Skin
 Bone and muscle mass begin to decrease in early
adulthood
– Bone mass loss accelerates in women after
menopause
– Loss of bone and muscle mass can be decreased
with weight-bearing exercise
 Skin becomes thinner, less elastic

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Body Systems Age at Different Rates—
Cardiovascular and Respiratory System
 Lung tissue decreases in elasticity, decreasing lung
capacity
 Heart walls become stiffer and less efficient
 Blood vessels lose elasticity
– Blood pressure may increase
 There is reduced capacity for aerobic exercise

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Body Systems Age at Different Rates—Immune
System
 Thymus decreases in size/function—fewer T cells,
declining immune response
 Activity of B cells declines
 Wound healing slows
 Susceptibility to infectious diseases increases

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Body Systems Age at Different Rates—Nervous and
Sensory Systems
 Brain and sensory functions decline, affecting every
neural activity
 There is an accumulated loss of neurons over time
 Degenerative changes take place in cell bodies of
remaining neurons
 Hearing loss occurs due to stiffening of hair cells
within the cochlea
 Vision problems occur due to stiffening of lens

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Body Systems Age at Different Rates—Reproductive
and Endocrine Systems
 Female reproductive capability ceases at
menopause
 Male reproductive capability declines over time
 There is decreased secretion of growth hormone

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Body Systems Age at Different Rates—Digestion
and Nutrition
 Some vitamins are not absorbed as efficiently
 Tooth loss may interfere with healthy eating
 There is decreased ability of the liver to detoxify and
metabolize drugs

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Body Systems Age at Different Rates—Urinary
System
 Kidney mass decreases, filtration rate decreases,
but these are generally of little consequence
 Many men experience prostate hypertrophy
 Women may experience urinary incontinence

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Aging Well

 Lifestyle
 Exercise
 Diet

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Death

 Failure of critical organ systems leads to rapid death


– Brain
– Respiratory system
– Cardiovascular system
 Death is a process; defining the moment of death is
a challenge
 Legal and medical criteria of death:
– Irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory
functions
– Irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire
brain, including the brain stem
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