LIPIDS

By: Payal Desai

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 INTRODUCTION
Definition: Lipids are organic substances or are fat like substances that are
insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, ether, chloroform
etc.
FUNCTION OF LIPIDS
•Storage and source of energy.
•Important dietary components.
•Structural components of bio membranes i.e they are building blocks of
membranes.
•Serve as thermal insulators the layer of lipid in the membrane protects from cold.
•Lipids protect internal organs and give smooth appearance to the body.
•Provide shape to the body
•Act as metabolic regulators (help in metabolism)
•Combinations of lipid and protein (lipoproteins) are important cellular constituents
in transporting lipids in the blood.
•They act as carrier for fat soluble vitamins or are source of fat soluble vitamins
(A,D,E and K)
•Steroidal hormone are required for various physiological activity.

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CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS

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 FATTY ACIDS
• Fatty acids consists of long chain hydrocarbon (hydrogen and carbon) having
carboxyl group at one end (-COOH) and methyl group at other end (-CH3).

• Most of the fatty acids occurring in nature has even number of carbons
Example palmatic acid has 16C and stearic acid has 18C
• Very rare fatty acids have odd carbons.
Example: proponic acid (3C) and valeric acid (5C)
• Fatty acids vary in chain length and are divided into three
a. Short chain has less than 6 carbons
b. Medium chain has 8-14 carbons
c. Long chain has 16-24 carbons 4
Fatty acids are classified into two classes
1. Saturated fatty acids
2. Unsaturated fatty acids

Fatty acids

Saturated fatty Unsaturated

acids fatty acids

Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated
fatty acids fatty acids

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 Saturated fatty acids
These acids do not contain a double bond.
Example: palmitic acid, stearic acid.

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 Unsaturated fatty acids
These acids contain one or more double bond.
If the fatty acid contains only one double bond it is called monounsaturated fatty
acid.
Example: palmitolic acid
If the fatty acid contains more than one double bonds it is called polyunsaturared
fatty acid.
Example: linoleic acid, arachidonic acid

Linolic acid – more than 1 double bonds

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Arachidonic acid

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 Nomenclature of fatty acids
• The name of fatty acid is based from the hydrocarbon from which it is derived.
• Saturated fatty acid end with suffix (-anoic)
• Example: octanoic acid
• Unsaturated fatty acid end with suffix (-enoic)
• Example: octadecanoic acid.
Numbering of fatty acids
• The numbering starts from the carboxyl carbon which is taken as number 1 and
the adjacent carbons are then numbered 2, 3,4 and so on.
• The terminal carbon containing methyl group is known as omega carbon.
• So starting from methyl end the carbon are numbered as omega 1, 2, 3 and so on.

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• Short hand representation of fatty acids
Instead of writing full structure , a short hand notations are given to represent fatty
acids.
The general rule is
a. Total number of carbon atoms are written first.
b. Which is then followed by number of double bonds.
c. And finally the position of the double bond from carboxyl end.

Linoleic acid 18:3; 9, 12, 15

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 Essential fatty acids (EFA)
These are fatty acids which cannot be synthesized by the body abd therefore should
be supplied in the diet.
Chemically they are poly unsaturated fatty acids
Example: linoleic acid (18:2;9,12 ) and linolenic acid (18:3;9,12,15)

Functions of EFA
These fatty acids are required for membrane structure and function.
Transport of cholesterol.
Formation of lipoproteins.
They are required for synthesis of lipids. (all lipids are synthesized from fatty acids)

Deficiency of EFA
Causes toad skin. (frog like skin).
This results in loss of hair and poor wound healing.

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• In addition to straight chain compounds there are cyclic fatty acids which can be
saturated or unsaturated.
• Example: hydrocapric acid

Hydrocapric acid

Eicosanoids
• These are the compounds which contain 20 carbon (chain length) fatty acids.
• They are signaling molecules.
• Made by enzymatic or non enzymatic oxidation.
• Example: prostaglandins.

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 SIMPLE LIPIDS
• These are esters of fatty acts with various alcohol.
• They are of two types

(Fatty acid + alcohol = esters of fatty acid)

a. Fats and oils

Also known as triacylglycerols.
These are esters of fatty acids with glycerol.
The difference between fat and oil is that fats are solid and oils are liquid at
room temperature.

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+

Example: tristearin. 13
 There are two types of triacylglycerol
Simple triacylglycerol
They contain same type of fatty acid residue at all three carbons.
Example: tristearin.

Mixed triacylglycerol
They contain 2-3 different types of fatty acid residues.
In this one residue is saturated and the other residue is unsaturated.
Example: 1,3-palmitoyl-2-linoleoyl glycerol.

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 Properties of triacylglycerol
• Hydrolysis
Triacylglycerol undergo stepwise hydrolysis to liberate fatty acid and glycerol.
This hydrolysis takes place by enzymes.
The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction is lipases.
This process is important for digestion of fat in GIT.

• Saponification
The hydrolysis of triacylglycerol by alkali to produce glycerol and soaps is known
as saponification
Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids.

Triacylglycerol + 3NaOH Glycerol + 3 R-COONa (soap)

• Rancidity
It is a term used to represent deterioration (spoilage) of fats and oils which results in
unpleasant taste.
Fats containing unsaturated fatty acids are more suitable to rancidity. 15
Rancidity (Cont..)

•Rancidity occurs when fats and oils are exposed to air, moisture, light, bacteria
etc.
•Hydrolytic rancidity occurs due to partial hydrolysis of triacylglycerol by
bacterial enzymes.
•Oxidative rancidity occurs due to oxidation of unsaturated fats which results in
formation of aldehydes, ketones etc.
•Rancid oils are unsuitable for human consumption.
•Antioxidants are the substances which prevent the occurrence of oxidative
rancidity.
•Small amount of antioxidants like gallic acid, tocopherols are added to
commercial preparations of fats and oils to prevent rancidity.
•Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene( BHT) are
antioxidants used in food preservatives.

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• Lipid peroxidation in vivo
In the living cells, lipids undergo oxidation to produce peroxides and free radicals
which can damage tissue.
These free radicals cause inflammatory diseases (redness), aging, cancer and
blocking of arteries.
Cells produce antioxidants such as vitamin E which prevents in vivo lipid
peroxidation.

• Non saponisable lipids or isoprenoid lipids

These are chemically unrelated to fats (not similar to fats) and phospholipids but
they have same solubility pattern as that of lipids.
Due to same solubility pattern they get extracted by solvents like ether, chloroform
etc.
Lipids gets hydrolyzed by alkali but isoprenoid lipids don’t get hydrolyzed and
remain unchanged.
As they do not hydrolyze by alkali to form soap they are called as non-saponisable
lipids.
They contain unsaturated hydrocarbon chain.
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Example : cholesterol, Vit D etc.
 Complex
lipids

phospholipids lipoproteins glycolipids

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Cholesterol

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b. Waxes
These are normally long chain with alcohol other than glycerol.
The alcohol can be aliphatic or alicyclic.
Instead of glycerol the alcohol found is mostly cetyl alcol
Have higher molecular weight.
Example: bees wax.

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 COMPLEX LIPIDS

These are esters of fatty acids with alcohol and additional group such as phosphate,
protein, carbohydrate, nitrogen bases etc.

(Fatty acid + alcohol + Phosphate or protein or carbohydrate = esters of fatty acid

[complex lipids])

a.Phospholipids
In addition to alcohol and fatty acid they contain (phosphate group) phosphoric acid
and nitrogenous base.
They are further subdivided into two
•Glycerophospholipids
These contain glycerol as alcohol.
Example: lecithin, cephalin
•Sphingophospholipids
These contain sphingosine which is an amino alcohol.
Example: sphingomyelin (commonly seen in nerve tissue). 22
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Functions of phospholipids

•Structural components of membranes.

•Help in electron transport.
•They absorb fat from intestine.
•They absorb fat from liver and prevent accumulation of fat in liver.
•They are essential for synthesis of lipopoteins.
•They participate in blood clotting.

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 GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS

• They occur in biological membrane.

Example
1. Phosphatidic acid
• It is simplest phospholipid and it does not occur in too much concentration in
tissues.
• It is an intermediate in synthesis in phospholipids.
2. Lecithins
• These are most abundant phospholipids in cell membranes.
• It contains choline base (water soluble vitamin-like nutrient) and phosphatidic
acid.
3. Cephalins
• Ethanolamine is nitrogeneous base present in cephalins.
• The only difference in lecithin and cephalin is the base.

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Phosphatidic acid
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• Sphingophospholipids
These contain sphingosine which is an amino alcohol.
Example: sphingomyelin (commonly seen in nerve tissue).

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b. Glycolipids
The combination of carbohydrates and lipids are glycolipids.
The alcohol in lipid is sphingosine.
They do not contain phosphate.
Example: gangliosides, cerebrosides.
( mostly found in brain tissues)

c. Lipo-proteins
These are biomolecules containing lipid and proteins.
Found in nuclei, mitochondria etc.
There are five types of lipoproteins;
1. chylomicrons – rich in triglycerides
2. Very low density lipoproteins (VLDL)- bad cholesterol , rich in triglycerides
3. Low density lipoproteins (LDL) – bad cholesterol (higher number means greater
risk) , rich in cholesterol
4. High density lipoproteins( HDL)- good cholesterol (higher number means lower
risk), - it is a type of lipoprotein which promotes the excretion and transport of
cholesterol.
5. Intermediate density lipoprotein - bad cholesterol
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 DERIVED LIPIDS
3. DERIVED LIPIDS (Steroids)
• They are derivatives obtained by hydrolysis of simple and complex proteins.
• They include glycerol, other alcohols, fatty acids, mono and diacylglycerols,
lipid soluble vitamin, hydrocarbons, ketone bodies, steroid hormone.
• Example: cholesterol it contains steroid nucleus (ring structure) and
ergosterol.

Cholesterol steroid ring structure.

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 Cholesterol (it is crystalline solid insoluble in water)
• It is most abundant animal sterol.
• It is major component of cell membrane and lipoprotein.
• It contains double bond between C5 and C6
• A side chain is attached to C17.
• Due to presence of –OH group present cholesterol is weakly amphiphilic.
That it contains polar head (-OH) and non polar tail (C17 side chain).
Which means it contains hydrophilic group as well as hydrophobic group.
• So to some extent it dissolves in water and to some extent in organic solvents.

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Functions of cholesterol
It acts as thermal insulator.
It gives shape and structure to membrane.
In synthesis of hormone and vitamin D.

Ergosterol
It occurs in plants.
It is structural constituent of membranes in yeast and fungi.
It is important precursor for vitamin D.

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 MISCELLANEOUS COMPOUNDS

• Include compounds which possess the characteristic of lipids

• Example: caratenoids, squalene.

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 AMPHIPATHIC LIPIDS (fluid mosaic model)
• As per definition lipids are insoluble in water.
• This is due to hydrocarbon groups present.
• Some of the lipids possess polar or hydrophilic groups which tend to be
soluble in water.
• Molecules which contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups are known
as amphipathic.
Example: cholesterol, phospholipids. Etc.
• When amphipathic lipids are mixed in water the polar group (head) is oriented
towards aqueous phase and non polar group (tail) is oriented in opposite
direction.

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• When amphipathic lipids are added to aqueous medium they form micelles,
monolayer or bilayer depending upon the concentration.
• So hydrophilic end is exposed to surface and hydrophobic is inside hidden from
the external environment.
• Biomembranes have such bilayer structure.
• This sturcture of biomembrane is known as fluid-mosaic model.
• Because of this the body temperature is maintained.

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 CHEMICAL TEST FOR STEROIDS
• Liebermann-burchard test
When chloroform solution of steroid is treated with acetic anhydride and
concentrated sulphuric acid, green color is formed.

• Salkowski test
When chloroform solution of steroid is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, red
color is formed.

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 QUALITATIVE TESTS FOR LIPIDS

• Solubility
Lipids are soluble in organic solvents like ether, chloroform and are insoluble in
water.
The extent of solubility depends on length of hydrocarbon chain.

• Formation of translucent spot on paper

Paper becomes semi transparent when a drop of oil is applied to paper.

• Formation of acrolein
Glycerol from fats get dehydrated with the help of solid potassium bisulphate.
This results in formation acrylic aldehyde or acrolein

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• Emulsification
When oil or liquid fat is shaken with water, it is dispersed in water to form
emulsion.
Shake a drop of oil with little water in a test tube, the oil becomes finely divided
forming emulsion.

• Iodine absorption test

This test is for unsaturated fatty acids or fats.
Solution of fat is prepared by adding chloroform.
The drop of iodine is added to fat solution and shaken.
The solution will decolorize if unsaturated fatty acid is present.

• Rancidity
When a fat is allowed to stand for a long period of time in contact with air or
moisture it gets oxidized and becomes rancid.
It liberates fatty acids.

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 QUANTITATIVE TEST/METHODS TO STUDY FATS OR OILS

• Saponification value
It is number of milligrans of potassium hydroxide required to saponify the free or
combined fatty acid in one gram of fat or oil.
It is determined by saponification and titration of excess alkali.

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• Acid value
It represents number of milligram of alkali required to neutralize free fatty acid
present in one gram of oil or fat.
The free fatty acid content increases due to action of lipase from microbial growth.

• Iodine number
It is defined as number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100g of fat or oil.
The unsaturated fatty acids react with iodine at double bond.
It is used to determine level of unsaturation of fat.
It is measure of amount of unsaturated fatty acid present in total fat or oil.

• Acetyl number
It is defined as milligrams of potassium hydroxide required for neutralization of
acetic acid obtained by saponification of one gram of an acetylated fat or oil.
By this method hydroxyl groups are measured.

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• Reichert meissel number
It is number of milliliters of 0.1N alkali required to neutralize the soluble volatile
fatty acids derived from 5g of fat or oil.
These values are used to detect adulteration.
It is measure of volatile fatty acids determined by titration of steam distillate.
(butyric acid)

• Polenske number
It is number of milliliters of 0.1 N potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the
insoluble fatty acid from 5grams of fat.

• Unsaponifiable matter
The part of fat or oil which does not get saponified with fixed alkali represents
unsaponifiable matter.
This part of oil/fat is important as it contains most fat soluble vitamins example vit
A, vit D an vit E.

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 DISEASES RELATED TO FAT METABOLISM
The two main lipids in blood are cholesterol and triglyceride.
Lipid metabolism diseases are primary or secondary.
Primary is due to genetic disorder and secondary is due to some other diseases (eg
diabetes etc)

STEATORRHOEA
•Excessive excretion of fats in faeces (stool) is known as It is caused due to mal
digestion (abnormal digestion) of fats.
•This results in the production of pale, foul-smelling and oily stools that are
difficult to flush.

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 HYPERLIPOPROTEINEMIA
• Also known as hyperlipidemia or dyslipidemia.
• In this lipo-proteins are reported in high concentration in the blood.
• It is a disorder in which it causes inability to break down lipids or fats in the
body.
• It is normally caused due to genetic disorder.

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 HYPOLIPOPROTEINEMIA
• Low levels of plasma lipids within normal range is beneficial for body but not
very low lipid levels.
• Very low lipid levels are undesirable.

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 FATTY LIVER
• The normal concentration of lipid in liver is around 5%
• It is not an storage organ for fats.
• There are certain conditions in which excess lipid is accumulated in liver,
resulting in fatty liver.
• This causes impairment of metabolic functions of lipids.

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 OBESITY
• It is a disorder due to accumulation of excess body fat.
• In this excess body fat is accumulated and this has negative effect on health.
• It's a common problem, estimated to affect around one in every four adults and
around one in every five children.
• Body mass index (BMI) is used to determine whether the person is obese or no.
• BMI is a measure of whether you're a healthy weight for your height.

For most adults:

BMI of 25 and below is normal.
a BMI of 25 to 29.9 means you are considered overweight
a BMI of 30 to 39.9 means you are considered obese
a BMI of 40 or above means you are considered severely obese

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Risks of obesity
Obesity can lead to a number of serious and potentially life-threatening conditions,
such as:
•type 2 diabetes
•coronary heart disease
•some types of cancer, such as breast cancer and bowel cancer
•Stroke

Causes
•Obesity has genetic basis i.e a child born to two obese people has 75% chances of
being obese.
•Obesity is generally caused by consuming more calories – particularly those in fatty
and sugary foods
•Obesity is an increasingly common problem, because many modern lifestyles often
promote eating excessive amounts high-calorie food and spending a lot of time sitting
at desks.
•There are also some underlying health conditions that can occasionally contribute to
weight gain, such as an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism)
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 LIPIDOSIS
• This is any disorder of lipid metabolism where there is abnormal accumulation of
lipid.
• In this there is abnormal accumulation of lipoproteins in the blood.

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 HYPERLIPIDEMIA
• It is a condition in which plasma cholesterol level is increased.
• Hyperlipidemia refers to elevated levels of lipids and cholesterol in the blood.

It is of two types:
1. Primary type occurs due to genetic defect
2. Secondary type occurs due to diseases such as diabetes.

How to cure?
Diet change
Lifestyle change
Medical treatment

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 ATHEROSCLEROSIS
It is a complex disease characterized by thickening or hardening of arteries due to
accumulation of lipids.
The lipids get deposited on inner wall of arteries.
It is a progressive disorder which will 1st narrow the arteries and then completely
block it.

Causes
Elevated cholesterol.
Diabetes
Hyperthyroidism
Obesity.

Risk
Heart attack.

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 CACHEXIA
This condition is opposite to that of obesity.
It is failure to maintain normal lipid stores in body.

Anorexia is total loss of appetite.

It is mostly seen in females in age group of 10-30.

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 QUESTIONS
• Classify lipids and give example. Explain role of lipid metabolism in health and
diseases.
• Explain the role of lipid and give their classification with example.
• Define and explain:
1) Saponification no. 4) Acetyl no.2) Acid value 5) Polenske no. 3) Iodine no. 6)
Reichert meissel no.
• Explain the role of phospholipid in biological membrane
• What are lipids? Classify it with examples. Write biomedical importance of
lipids.
• Define phospholipid. Classify it. Write in brief about phospholipases and
biomedical importance of phospholipids.
• Write biomedical importance of cholesterol.
• Structure of cholesterol, lechithin,cephalin,triacylglycerol etc.
• Qualitative and quantative test for lipids

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• Test for steroids
• fluid mosic model of lipids (lipids in biological membrane/amphiphatic nature
of lipids/cholesterol)
• Essential fatty acids with example
• Disorders of lipid metabolism.
• Saturated and unsaturated fatty acid with example.

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