“Quantum Corral”

Fe atoms on Cu substrate

Scanning Tunneling Microscope

y2

http://education.mrsec.wisc.edu/127.htm
Hydrogen-like atom energy

𝑍2 𝑒 2
E= - ( )
𝑛2 2𝑎

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
=-
𝑛2
 Free
Atoms
Vacuum Level
3s Valence electrons

2p
Energy

2s

Core electrons

1s
 Free
Atoms
Vacuum Level
3s Valence electrons
(suburbanites)

2p
Energy

2s

Core electrons
(downtown)

1s
 Free
Atoms BE= Binding Energy

Vacuum Level
3s Valence electrons
(suburbanites)
BE (2p)

2p
2s
BE (1s)

Core electrons
(downtown)

1s
 Free Condensed
Atoms Matter
Vacuum Level Vacuum Level
3s Valence Band Ef (Fermi level)

2p 2p
Energy

2s 2s

1s 1s
 Core vacancies

Vacuum Level Vacuum Level

2p 2p
2s 2s

Vacancy created by:

1. High energy electron (in electron microscope, e.g.)
2. High energy ion (PIXE)
3. High energy x-ray (x-ray fluorescence)

1s 1s Core vacancy
 Core vacancy
(Metastable)

Vacuum Level

2p
2s

1s
 Radiative de-excitation

Vacuum Level Vacuum Level

2p 2p
2s 2s

BE(1s)-BE(2p) + hn (x-ray)

1s 1s
X-ray generation

E
Eo
X-ray generation
Characteristic x-rays Background x-rays
(Bremsstrahlung)

E
Eo
 Bremmstrahlung

Bremsstrahlung defined
Bremsstrahlung is a German term that means "braking rays." It is an important
phenomenon in the generation of X-rays. In the Bremsstrahlung process, a high speed
electron traveling in a material is slowed or completely stopped by the forces of any atom
it encounters. As a high speed electron approaches an atom, it will interact with the
negative force from the electrons of the atom, and it may be slowed or completely
stopped. If the electron is slowed down, it will exit the material with less energy. The law
of conservation of energy tells us that this energy cannot be lost and must be absorbed
by the atom or converted to another form of energy. The energy used to slow the electron
is excessive to the atom and the energy will be radiated as x-radiation of equal energy.

If the electron is completely stopped by the strong positive force of the nucleus, the
radiated x-ray energy will have an energy equal to the total kinetic energy of the electron.
This type of action occurs with very large and heavy nuclei materials. The new x-rays and
liberated electrons will interact with matter in a similar fashion to produce more radiation
at lower energy levels until finally all that is left is a mass of long wavelength
electromagnetic wave forms that fall outside the x-ray spectrum.

https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/Radiography/bremsstrahlung_popup.htm
https://static7.depositphotos.com/1076581/675/v/450/depositphotos_6755790-stock-illustration-brake-disc.jpg
Characteristic X-rays
X-ray generation
Characteristic x-rays Background x-rays
(bremsstrahlung)

E
Eo
 Problem:
What is the thickness required to shield Cu(Ka) radiation (8 keV) so that only 0.1%
is transmitted through the material?

mm (cm2/g) r(g/cm3) Thickness (mm)

Al 50.3 2.70 508

Ni 49.5 8.908 156

Pb 228.7 11.34 26.6

Soft tissue 10 1.06 6500

https://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/XrayMassCoef/ComTab/tissue.html
Beer’s Law (1729)

I0 I

Mass absorption coefficient (cm2/g)

e-mmrx
Thickness (cm)
I=I0
Density (g/cm3)
The Other (Original) Beer Law
Bavaria (1516)- Reinheitsgebot
 Types of X-ray Spectroscopy

Incident Particle Exit Particle Technique Name(s)

Electrons X-rays • Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS)

(electron microscope) • Wavelength Dispersive Spectroscopy
(WDS)

X-rays X-rays X-ray Fluorescence (XRF)

Protons X-rays Proton induced X-ray Emission (PIXE)

Energy Dispersive x-ray Spectroscopy

(Multichannel pulse height analyzer)

Lithium drifted silicon x-ray detector
Energy Dispersive x-ray Spectroscopy

(Multichannel pulse height analyzer)

Wavelength Dispersive Spectroscopy
(WDS)

http://www.omniinstruments.com/wds_schem.gif
 WDS vs EDS

https://www.rigaku.com/sites/default/files/bytes/xrf/fluorscence1.jpg
https://image.slidesharecdn.com/xrayspectroscopy-151128015339-lva1-app6892/95/x-ray-spectroscopy-35-638.jpg?cb=1448675664
 X-ray spectrometry
• Advantages Disadvantages