SIGNALS, SPECTRA AND

SIGNAL PROCESSING
ECE 231
COURSE DESCRIPTION

• Fourier Transform; z transform; convolution; FIR filters; IIR filters; random signal analysis; correlation
functions; DFT; FFT; Spectral analysis; applications of signal processing to speech, image, etc
COURSE OBJECTIVES

• Upon completion of the course, the student must be able to conceptualize, analyze and design signals,
spectra and signal processing system.
COURSE OUTLINE

• Classification and Characteristic of Signals

• Sampling theorem and Aliasing
• Difference equations for FIR and IIR filters
• Convolution and correlation
• Z transforms
• Pole-zero-gain filters
• Fourier Transforms
• Filtering
• FIR/IIR
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

• Signals
• It is any time varying phenomenon that is intended to convey information is called signal.
• Ex. Human voice, voltage on telephone wires, Electrical Signal.

• System
• System is a device which operates on signals according to its characteristics.
• The meaningful interconnection of physical devices and components is called as system
• Ex. Communication System
SIGNAL CLASSIFICATION

• Signals are classified into the following categories:

• Continuous Time Signals (CTS) and Discrete Time Signals (DTS)
• Deterministic Signal and Non-Deterministic Signals
• Even and Odd Signals
• Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• Energy and Power Signals
• Real and Imaginary Signals
 CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS (CTS) AND
DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS (DTS)

• A signal is said to be CONTINUOUS when it is defined for all instant

of time.
• A signal x(t) is said to be CONTINUOUS if it is defined for all time.
• The amplitude of the signal varies with time
CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS (CTS) AND
DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS (DTS)
 CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS (CTS) AND
DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS (DTS)

• A signal is said to be DISCRETE when it is defined at only discrete

instant of time.
• A signal X[n] is said to be discrete-time signal if it can be defined
for a discrete instant of time.
CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS (CTS) AND
DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS (DTS)
 CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS (CTS) AND
DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS (DTS)

• Unlike continuous-time signal, a discrete-time signal is not a function of a

continuous argument; however, it may have been obtained by sampling from
a continuous-time signal.
CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS (CTS) AND
DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS (DTS)
 DETERMINISTIC SIGNAL
AND
NON-DETERMINISTIC SIGNALS

• A signal is said to be DETERMINISTIC if there are no uncertainty

with respect to its value at any instant of time.
• A signal which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula
are also known as deterministic signals.
 DETERMINISTIC SIGNAL
AND
NON-DETERMINISTIC SIGNALS
 DETERMINISTIC SIGNAL
AND
NON-DETERMINISTIC SIGNALS

• A signal is said to be NON-DETERMINISTIC if there is uncertainty with respect

to its value at some instant of time.
• Non-deterministic signals are random in nature hence they are called
RANDOM SIGNALS. Random signals cannot be described by a mathematical
equation.
 DETERMINISTIC SIGNAL
AND
NON-DETERMINISTIC SIGNALS
 EVEN AND ODD SIGNALS

• One of characteristics of signal is symmetry that may be useful for signal

analysis. EVEN SIGNALS are symmetric around vertical axis, and ODD SIGNALS
are symmetric about origin.
 EVEN AND ODD SIGNALS
• A signal is said to be EVEN when it satisfies x(t) = x(-t)
• It remains identical under folding operation (Time Reversal).

Another example is 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡

 EVEN AND ODD SIGNALS

• A signal is said to be ODD when it satisfies the

condition x(t) = -x(-t)
• It does not remain identical after performing the fold
operation ( Time reversal )
• X(0) must be always equal to 0

Another example is sin 𝑤𝑡

 PERIODIC AND APERIODIC SIGNALS
• A signal is said to be PERIODIC if it satisfies x(t) = x(t + T) or x(n) =
x(n + N)
• A signal that repeats its pattern over a period is called a PERIODIC SIGNAL.
 PERIODIC AND APERIODIC SIGNALS
A signal is said to be aperiodic if the signal does not repeat its
pattern over a period is called APERIODIC SIGNAL or NON PERIODIC
•Data and Signals
 DATA AND SIGNALS

•To be transmitted, data must

be transformed to
electromagnetic signals.
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

• Data can be analog or digital. The term analog

data refers to information that is continuous;
digital data refers to information that has discrete
states. Analog data take on continuous values.
Digital data take on discrete values.
•.
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

• Data can be analog or digital. The term analog

data refers to information that is continuous;
digital data refers to information that has discrete
states. Analog data take on continuous values.
Digital data take on discrete values.
•.
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA

•Data can be analog or digital.

•Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
•Digital data have discrete states and
take discrete values.
 ANALOG DATA

 For example, when someone speaks, an

analog wave is created in the air. This can be
captured by a microphone and converted into
an analog signal or sampled and converted to a
digital signal.
 DIGITAL DATA

 For example, data are stored in a computer

memory in a form of 1’s and 0’s. They can be
converted into a digital signal or modulated
into an analog signal for transmission across a
medium.
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

• Signals can be analog or digital.

• Analog signals can have an infinite number of
values in a range.
• Digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
 PERIODIC SIGNALS

• In data communications, we commonly use periodic

analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
• Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite
• periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves.
SINE WAVE
SINE WAVE
 TWO SIGNALS
WITH THE SAME
PHASE AND
FREQUENCY,
BUT DIFFERENT
IN AMPLITUDE
 TAKE NOTE !

• Frequency and Period are inverse of each other.

 TWO SIGNALS
WITH THE SAME
AMPLITUDE AND
PHASE, BUT
DIFFERENT
FREQUENCIES.
UNITS OF PERIOD AND FREQUENCY
 EXAMPLE 1 PROBLEM

• The power we use at home has a frequency of 60Hz.

Find its period and express it in.
 EXAMPLE 1 SOLUTION

• The power we use at home has a frequency of 60Hz.

Find its period and express it in 𝑚𝑠.

1 1
• Solution: 𝑇 = = = 0.166666. . = 16.67ms
𝑓 60
 EXAMPLE 2 PROBLEM

• The period of a signal is 100ms. What is its

frequency in kilohertz.
 EXAMPLE 2 SOLUTION

• The period of a signal is 100ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz.

• Solution:
1 1 10−3 𝑘ℎ𝑧
•𝑓= = = 10𝐻𝑧 = 10𝐻𝑧 𝑥 = 10−2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑇 100𝑥10−3 1ℎ𝑧
 FREQUENCY

• Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time

• Change in a short span of time means high
frequency
• Change over a long span of time means low
frequency
 NOTE!

• If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is

zero.
• If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is
infinite.
 NOTE

• Phase describe the position of the waveform relative

to time = 0.
THREE SINE
WAVES WITH
THE SAME
AMPLITUDE
AND
FREQUENCY
BUT
DIFFERENT
PHASES
 EXAMPLE 3 PROBLEM

• A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time

= 0. What is the phase and radians?
 EXAMPLE 3 SOLUTION

• A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time

= 0. What is the phase and radians?

• Solution:
PHASE
• The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to
time zero.

• The phase is measured in degrees or radians (360 degrees is 2p

radians)
 TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS
•Time-domain representation

•Frequency-domain representation
Time and frequency domains
Time and frequency domains (continued)
SEE YOU NEXT MEETING

• End
• Continuation
 PERIODIC COMPOSITE SIGNAL

• A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data

communications; we need to change one or more of its
characteristics to make it useful.
• According to “Fourier analysis”, any composite signal
can be represented as a combination of simple sine waves
with different frequencies, phase and amplitudes
(refer to slide 31)
PERIODIC COMPOSITE SIGNAL
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM COMPARISON
NOTE: DIRECT
CURRENT
COMPONENT
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH

• The “Frequency Spectrum” of a signal is the

collection of all component frequencies it contains
and is shown using a frequency-domain graph.
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH

• The “Bandwidth” of the signal is the width of the

frequency spectrum.
• Bandwidth refers to the range of component
frequencies.
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH

• To compute the bandwidth , subtract the lowest

frequency from the highest frequency of the range.
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1 (BANDWIDTH)

• If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine

waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and
900 Hz, what is the bandwidth? Draw the spectrum,
assuming all components have a maximum
amplitude of 10 V.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1 (BANDWIDTH)

• Solution:
• B = 𝑓ℎ − 𝑓𝑙 = 900 − 100 = 800 ℎ𝑧
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1 (BANDWIDTH)

• Solution:
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2 (BANDWIDTH)

• A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency?
Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all integral
frequencies of the same amplitude.
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2 (BANDWIDTH)

• Solution:
• B = fh - fl

• 20 = 60 - fl

• fl = 60 - 20 = 40 Hz
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2 (BANDWIDTH)

• Solution:
• B = fh - fl

• 20 = 60 - fl

• fl = 60 - 20 = 40 Hz
 COMPOSITE SIGNALS AND TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• A medium may pass some frequencies and may block

others. This means that when we send a composite
signal, containing many frequencies, at one end of the
transmission medium, we may not receive the same signal
at the other end.
 COMPOSITE SIGNALS AND TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• The range of frequencies that a medium can pass is called its

bandwidth.
• The bandwidth is a property of a medium: It is difference between
the highest and the lowest frequencies that the medium can
satisfactorily pass.
• If bandwidth of a medium does not match the spectrum of a
signal, some of the frequencies are lost.
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM (BANDWIDTH)

• A signal has a spectrum with frequencies

between 1000 and 2000 Hz (bandwidth of
1000 Hz). A medium can pass frequencies
from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000
Hz). Can this signal faithfully pass through this
medium?
 EXAMPLE PROBLEM (BANDWIDTH)

• Solution:
• The answer is definitely NO. Although the signal
can have the same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the
range does not overlap. The medium can only
pass the frequencies between 3000 and 4000
Hz; the signal is totally lost.