Introduction

• As discussed in Chapter 1, TL can be

segmented into two groups:
1) Those that support TEM mode (TEM TL)
2) Those that do not (Higher Order TL)

• Higher-order TL that do not support TEM

mode is called Waveguides.
Waveguides
 WAVEGUIDES (WG)
• Another mean of transporting EM wave from Source
to the Load consist of a hollow, metal tube through
which waves propagate.
• The tube wall provides distributed inductance, while
the empty space between the tube walls provide
distributed capacitance
• Waveguides are practical only for signals of extremely
high frequency, where the wavelength approaches the
cross-sectional dimensions of the waveguide.
• Below such frequencies, waveguides are useless as
electrical transmission lines.
 Differences between WG and TL

TL WG
Propagation Can support other field
Can only support TEM configurations. i.e: TE, TM,
Mode Hybrid mode
At Become inefficient due Use at microwave frequency
Microwave to skin effect and to obtain larger bandwidth
dielectric losses and lower signal attenuation
Frequency
Frequency Operate above a certain
Operate from dc (f=0)
frequency called cutoff
Operation to a very high
frequency below which WG
frequency
are useless (High-Pass Filter)
 Advantages of WG over TL
• Low loss.
loss That is, the wave travels along the
guide without greatly attenuating as it goes.
• Routeable.
Routeable This means that we can gently
bend the guiding structure without losing
contact with the wave, without generating
reflections, and without incurring much
additional loss.
 WG

Waveguides conduct microwave energy at lower loss than coaxial cables

 WG
• WG can have various cross sections
– Rectangular
– Circular
– Elliptical
• At the same time, it can be rigid or flexible
 WG Cross-Section

RECTANGULAR CIRCULAR
 (RW: Rigid Waveguides)

RW: TWIST 90°

RW: DIRECTIONAL AND
CROSS COUPLERS
RW: 90° BENDS IN PLANES “E”
and “H” planes 
RW: WAVEGUIDE STRAIGHT
SECTION 
 RW: FEEDS FOR PARABOLIC
ANTENNAS also use WAVEGUIDES
 FW: Flexible Waveguides
FW: Rectangular Flex-Twist Waveguide

ATM Type "125"Flex-Twist W/G assemblies:

•Used in requirements where both bending and twisting of the Waveguide is needed.
•Supplied with Neoprene® jacket in order to hold pressure, as a standard model.
•Silicone jacket available upon request.
ATM: Advanced Technical Material Inc. (company name)
 FW: Rectangular Flex Waveguide,
High Power, Non-Twistable

ATM Type "124" flexible, non twist W/G assemblies:

For use in Hi Power Applications.
Finished with high temperature paint.
ATM: Advanced Technical Material Inc. (company name)
 RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation

Ρv is Volume Charge Density

J is Current Density

Assume that the waveguide is filled with:

•A source-free ( v  0, J  0) lossless dielectric material with(  0 )
•Its walls are perfectly conducting ( c  )
 RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation
• The fields inside the rectangular waveguide can be
obtained from the solutions to the wave equation
which satisfies the boundary conditions for a
rectangular waveguide of infinite length.
• Thus, two basic sets of solutions exist and each of
them defining a set of modes.
• Thus, there are two modes of propagation possible
inside a hollow metal waveguide which we will
discuss later.
Consider waves propagating along straight guiding
structures with a uniform cross section:
General Behaviors

In Phasor form:

 
E x, y, z   E x, y  e  z 

E
2
 E 
 E2
z 2
2 
 H 2 
 H
z 2
 RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation
• From our knowledge, for a lossless medium,
Maxwell’s equations in phasor form will become:
Homogeneous Helmholtz’s equations
2 2
 Es  k Es  0 (2.1)
2 2
 Hs  k Hs  0 (2.2)

Where: k    is the wavenumber  is Del Operator

And the time factor e j  t is assumed
 HOW TO SOLVE
HOMOGENEOUS HEMHOLTZ’S
EQUATION

2  2 
 Es  k Es  0
 2  2  2 
    2 
 k Es  0
 x 2 y 2 z 2 
 
 RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation

• In this case,
Es  (E xs E ys , E zs ) (2.4)

H s  (H xs , H ys , H zs ) (2.5)

Thus, to obtain E and H fields, we have to solve six

scalar equations Helmholtz equations
(you can see this in Eq. 2.4 and 2.5)
 RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation
• For instance, to find z-component, Eq. 2.1 will become:
Partial Differential Equation
 2 E zs  2 E zs  2 E zs
   k 2 E zs  0 (2.6)
x 2 y 2 z 2
• Eq. 2.6 can be solved by separation of variable (product
solution):
E zs ( x , y, z)  X( x )Y( y) Z(z) (2.7)

In this case, X(x), Y(y) and Z(z) are the functions of x, y and z
 RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation
• Substitute Eq. 2.7 into 2.6 and divide by XYZ will yield:
X" Y" Z"
   k 2 (2.8)
X Y Z

• The variable in Eq. 2.8 are independent from each other.

Thus, each term must be a constant. Thus, we can rewrite
Eq. 2.8 as:

 k 2x  k 2y   2  k 2 (2.9)

Where each term in the left-hand side is the separation constant.

 RECTANGULAR WG: Dervation
• Hence, Eq. 2.8 can be separated as:
2
X" k x X  0 (2.9a)
2
Y" k y Y  0 (2.9b)

Z" 2 Z  0 (2.9c)

• We obtain the solution to Eq. 2.9 as:

X( x )  c 1 cos k x x  c 2 sin k x x (2.10a)
Y( y)  c 3 cos k y y  c 4 sin k y y (2.10b)
Z(z)  c5eZ  c6 e Z (2.10c)
 RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation
• Substituting Eq. 2.10 into Eq. 2.7 will give us:
E zs ( x , y, z)  (c1 cos k x x  c 2 sin k x x )(c 3 cos k y y  c 4 sin k y y)(c 5 eZ  c6 e Z )
(2.11)
• if we assume that the wave propagates along the
waveguide in the +z direction, c5  0
(because the wave has to be finite at infinity).
• Thus, Eq. 2.11 will become:
E zs ( x, y, z)  (A 1 cos k x x  A 2 sin k x x )(A 3 cos k y y  A 4 sin k y y)e Z (2.12)

Where: A 1  c 1c 6 , A 2  c 2 c 6 and so on so forth

 RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation

• H zs will then be: (2.13)

H zs ( x, y, z)  (B1 cos k x x  B 2 sin k x x )(B 3 cos k y y  B 4 sin k y y)e  Z
• Instead of solving other field components Exs,
Eys,Hxs and Hys in the same manner, we can
simply use Maxwell’s equations to determine
them from Ezs and Hzs from:
The curl of vector E   Es   jHs
The curl of vector H   Hs  jEs
 HOW TO SOLVE THE MAXWELL EQUATIONS?
Interrelationships of the 6 field components
 
From   E s   jH s
x̂ ŷ ẑ
   
  jHs EXAMPLE
x y z
E xs E ys E zs

E zs E ys
   jH xs
y z
E xs E zs
   jH ys
z x
E ys E xs
   jH zs
x y
 IN SUMMARY:
E zs E ys
1    jH xs (2.14a)
y z
H zs H ys (2.14b)
2   jE xs
y z
E xs E zs
3    jH ys (2.14c)
z x
H xs H zs
4   jE ys (2.14d)
z x
E ys E xs (2.14e)
5    jH zs
x y
H ys H xs
6   jE zs (2.14f)
x y
Our goal now is to express
Exs, Eys, Hxs and Hys in
terms of Ezs and Hzs
 RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation
• If we combine Eq. 2.14b and 2.14c, we will get:
H zs 1   2 E xs  2 E zs 
jE xs    (2.15)
y j  z 2 xz 
 
• From Eq. 2.11 and 2.12, all the field components
vary with z according to e  z . Thus,

E zs ~e  z E xs ~e  z
,

• Thus,
E zs 2
 E
  E zs , xs   2E
z 2 xs
z
 RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation
• From here, Eq. 2.15 will become:
H zs 1  2 E zs 
jE xs     E xs   
y j  x 
OR:
1 2 2  E zs H zs
 (    )E xs  
j j x y
If we let: h 2   2  2   2  k 2
Where: h is Eigenvalue problem)
 E zs j H zs
E xs   
h 2 x h 2 y
RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation

We can use similar methods to express other

field components.

i.e.: Eys, Hxs and Hys in terms of Ezs and

Hzs

THIS IS OUR ULTIMATE GOAL!

RECTANGULAR WG: Derivation
 E zs j H zs
E xs    (2.16a)
2
h x h 2 y
 E zs j H zs (2.16b) WE ARE
E ys   
2
h y h 2 x ALMOST
THERE BUT
j E zs  H zs (2.16c)
H xs   NOT YET…
h 2 y h 2 x
j E zs  H zs
H ys    (2.16d)
h 2 y h 2 x
2 2 2 2 2
Where: h    k  k x  k y
 From Eq. 2.12,2.13 and 2.16, note that there are different
types of field patterns or configurations. Each of these
distinct field is called MODE.
MODE
Mode can be divided into 4 categories according to whether Ez or
Hz exists or both not exist.
1. Transverse electromagnetics (TEM) mode
Ezs = 0 and Hzs = 0
2. Transverse magnetic (TM) modes
Ezs  0 and Hzs =0
3. Transverse electric (TE) modes
Ezs = 0 and Hzs 0
4. Hybrid electric (HE) modes
(Neither E nor H is transverse to the direction of
wave propagation)
Ezs  0 and Hzs 0
Mode of Propagation in TL andWG
• Mode of Propagation in normal TL is different
from the one in Waveguides
 TEM mode
• Waveguides are single-conductor elements, the
propagation of electrical energy down a
waveguide is of a very different nature than the
propagation of electrical energy down a two-
conductor transmission line.
 TE and TM Modes
 TEM in TL
• All electromagnetic waves consist of electric and magnetic
fields propagating in the same direction of travel, but
perpendicular to each other.
• Along the length of a normal transmission line, both
electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular (transverse)
to the direction of wave travel.
• This is known as the principal mode, or TEM (Transverse
Electric and Magnetic) mode.
• This mode of wave propagation can exist only where there
are two conductors,
conductors and it is the dominant mode of wave
propagation where the cross-sectional dimensions of the
transmission line are small compared to the wavelength of
the signal
TEM in TL
conductor

conductor

Twin lead (Parallel Conductor) transmission line propagation: TEM mode

 TE vs TM mode
• When an electromagnetic wave propagates down a
hollow tube, only one of the fields; either electric
or magnetic field will actually be transverse to the
direction of propagation.
• The other field will “loop” longitudinally to the
direction of travel, but still be perpendicular to the
other field.
• Whichever field remains transverse to the
direction of travel determines whether the wave
propagates in TE mode (Transverse Electric) or
TM (Transverse Magnetic) mode.
 TE vs TM mode
• If E is transverse to the direction of
propagation  TE modes

• If H is transverse to the direction of

propagation  TM modes
Waveguide (TE) transverse electric and (TM) transverse magnetic modes
 TE vs TM mode

Components of EM fields in a rectangular waveguide

(a) TE mode E z  0 (b) TM mode H z  0
 Relationship between k and β
• FOR TEM mode, h = 0
• Thus,  2   k 2      j  jk .So,   k
• However, for OTHER modes (TE, TM and Hybrid),

 k
Recall:
In plane waves of lossless dielectric, α=0 ,    
 THE ULTIMATE GOAL!
Our goal is to express Exs, Eys, Hxs and
Hys in terms of Ezs and Hzs

This can be done by using Eq. 2.16 with Eq.

2.12 and 2.13 and setting the boundary
condition for each type of modes.

i.e.: Different mode will have different

expressions for Exs, Eys, Hxs and Hys.
 TM MODES
• This means that we are going to set H z  0 and from here,
we will determine Ex, Ey, Ez,Hx and Hy using Eq. 2.12
(S26) and 2.16 (S34) and the boundary conditions.
• For instance, we can solve for Ez and later determine
other field components from Ez.
• To determine the boundary condition, the tangential
component of E field must be continuous. Thus,

Ezs = 0 at y=0 (2.17a)

Ezs = 0 at y=b (2.17b)
Ezs = 0 at x=0 (2.17c)
Ezs = 0 at x=a (2.17d)
• Eq. 2.17a and 2.17c requires that A1= 0 = A3 in Eq. 2.12
• As such, Eq. 2.12 becomes:
E zs  E 0 (sin k x x )(sin k y y)e  z (2.18)

Where: E 0  A 2 A 4
• Eq. 2.17b and 2.17d when applied to Eq. 2.18 require that:
sin k x a  0 and sin k y b  0
• This implies that:
k x a  m, m = 1,2,3,…
Only positive integer
k y b  n n = 1,2,3,…

• Rearranging this equations will give us:

m n (2.19)
kx  , ky 
a b
• Thus, Eq. 2.18 will become:
 mx   ny   Z
E zs  E 0 sin   sin  e (2.20)
 a   b 
• We can obtain other field components from Eq. 2.20 and
2.14 (S29) with Hzs = 0. Hence,
  m   mx   ny   Z (2.21a)
E  
xs  E 0cos  sin  e
h 2  a   a   b 
  n   mx   ny   Z (2.21b)
E ys    E 0 sin  cos e
2
h  b   a   b 
j  n   mx   ny   Z (2.21c)
H xs    E 0 sin   cos  e
h2  b   a   b 
j  m   mx   ny   Z (2.21d)
H ys     E 0 cos   sin  e
h2  a   a   b 
 2 n 2
2  k2  k2   m   
Where: h x y     b 
 a 
 (m,n) of TM
• Each set of integers m and n gives different field
pattern or mode which can be referred to as mode,
in the waveguide.
• Integer m equals the number of half-cycle
variations in the x – direction.
• Integer n equals the number of half-cycle
variations in the y – direction.
• If (m,n) = (0,0), (0,n) or (m,0):
 ALL field components vanish From Eq. 2.20 & 2.21
Thus, neither m or n can be zero
• TM11 is the lowest-order mode of all the modes.
• By putting Eq. 2.19 into h 2   2  k 2  k 2x  k 2y
we will obtain the propagation constant and that is:
2 n 2
 m   
        k2 (2.22)
 a  b
• Recall that:     j
• From Eq. 2.22, we have 3 possibilities depending on k (or ω),
m and n:

1) CASE A (CUTOFF)
2) CASE B (EVANESCENT)
3) CASE C ( PROPAGATION)
 CASE A (CUTOFF)
m  2 n  2
2 2  
If: k         
 a  b
0 OR  0
The value of ω that causes this is called
the cutoff angular frequency, ωc where:
1  m  2  n  2 (2.23)
c     
  a  b

RECALL: h 2   2  k 2  k 2x  k 2y
    j
 CASE B (EVANESCENT)

 2 n 2
2 2  
m  
If: k         
 a  b

 and 0

•In this case, we will NOT have any wave propagation at all.
•These nonpropagating or attenuating modes are said
to be evanescent.
• Purely Reactive  no power flow associated with evanescent waves.
 CASE C (PROPAGATION)
2 2
2 2  m   n 
If: k         
 a  b

  j and 0
From this limitation, the phase constant, β will become:

 2 n 2
 m   
  k2       From Eq. 2.22
 a  b
This is the ONLY case that propagation will take place
 Z  e  jZ .
because all field components will have the factor of e
REFER TABLE 1
Imagine a High-Pass Filter

PROPAGATION

ω
Evanescent
ωc
Cutoff
 Cutoff Frequency, fc
• For EACH mode, there will be a corresponding cutoff
frequency, fc
• Definition: The frequency below which attenuation occurs
and above which propagation takes place
• As mentioned before, a waveguide also acts as a high-pass
filter. Thus, it has its own cutoff frequency.
• From Eq. 2.23, the cutoff frequency is:

c 1  m 
2 n 2
  u '  m 2  n 2
fc    OR fc     
2 2   a   b  2  a  b
1
Where u '    phase velocity of uniform plane wave in the lossless
dielectric medium (  0,  ,  ) filling the waveguide.
Cutoff Wavelength, λc

c  u' (2.24)
fc

OR

2
c 
2 2 (2.25)
   
m n
   
 a  b
 Phase Constant, β
2
 
f
    1   c 
f 

OR

2
 fc 
  ' 1   
f 

Where: '   u '     phase constant of uniform plane

wave in the dielectric medium
γ for Evanescent Mode

2
 fc 
    '    1
f 
Phase Velocity, u ph (or v ph , u p, v p )


u ph 

 λ in the WG Different from λc

2 u ph
 
 f

Some books denote λ in the WG as λg

 Intrinsic Wave Impedance of the mode
or ηTM as γ = jβ
Some books use ZTM to denote η
 There is a characteristic impedance associated
with wave propagation in any uniform medium.
 In this case we use the Greek letter “Eta” (η) for
intrinsic impedance.
 The intrinsic impedance is a measure of the ratio
of the electric field to the magnetic field.
Ex Ey   2
 
f
TM     1  c 
Hy Hx   f 
2
 fc  '    is intrinsic impedance of
OR: TM  ' 1   
f  uniform plane wave in the dielectric
medium.
 PRIME vs WITHOUT PRIME
 The quantities WITH prime (’)
• Wave characteristics of the dielectric medium unbounded
by the waveguide
• For instance, u’ will be the phase velocity of the wave if
the waveguide were removed and the entire space were
filled with dielectric.

 The quantities WITHOUT prime

• Wave characteristics of the medium bounded by the
waveguide.
 Example: TM21

RECALL:
m and n indicate the number of half-cycle variations
in the x-y cross section of the guide.
 TE Modes
• In this type of mode, the electric field, E is transverse (or
normal) to the direction of propagation. T
• The procedure is the same as the previous mode but in this
case we set E z  0
• First let us determine the boundary condition:

Exs = 0 at y=0 (2.26a)

Exs = 0 at y=b (2.26b)
Exs = 0 at x=0 (2.26c)
Exs = 0 at x=a (2.26d)
 TE Modes
• From Eq. 2.16 and 2.26, the boundary conditions can be
written as:
H zs at y=0
0
y
H zs y=b
0 at
y
H zs at x=0
0
x
H zs x=a
0 at
x
• Use the boundary conditions on Eq. 2.13 will give us:
 mx   ny   Z
H zs  H 0 cos  cos e (2.27)
 a   b 
Where: H o  B1B3
 TE Modes
• Determine other field components using Eq. 2.27 and 2.16:

j  n   mx   ny   Z (2.28a)

E xs   H 0 cos  sin e
2
h  b   a   b 
j  m   mx   ny   Z (2.28b)
E ys     H 0 sin   cos  e
h2  a   a   b 
  m   mx   ny   Z (2.28c)
H xs   H 0 sin   cos e
2
h  a   a   b 
  n   mx   ny   Z (2.28d)
H ys    H 0 cos  sin   e
h2  b   a   b 

But for TE modes: m = 0,1,2,3,……

n = 0,1,2,3,……
 (m,n) for TE
• (m,n) can be (0,1),(1,0) but not (0,0)
• Both m and n cannot be zero at the same time because this will
force the field components to vanish.
• This implies that the lowest mode can be either TE10 or TE 01
depending on the values of a and b which is the dimension of
the waveguide.
• It is standard to practice that:
a  b so that 1 / a 2 1 / b 2
u' u'
• Thus, TE10 is the lowest mode because f cTE10   f cTE01 
2a 2b
• At the same time, TE10 is also known as DOMINANT MODE
 DO U KNOW THAT?
• Lowest-order mode
Mode with the lowest cutoff frequency in the mode
itself (i.e.: TE OR TM mode)

• Dominant mode
Mode with the lowest cutoff frequency from both
modes (i.e.: TE AND TM mode)
 To Summarize:

TE Modes TM Modes

Lowest-Order TE10
Mode
TM11
for a>b

Dominant Mode TE10

 TE Modes
• h, , f c ,  c , , u ph and λ for TE modes are
the same as for TM modes except for η

ηTE ≠ ηTM
 ηTE
Ex Ey
TE  
Hy Hx
 
 (for TM : )
 
 1

 2
 fc 
1  
f 
'
OR: TE 
2
 c
f
1  
f 
Variation of ηTE and ηTM
ηTE and ηTM are purely
resistive and they vary with
frequency as can be seen in the figure

TM TE  ' 2

TE Modes in Rectangular Waveguide
 fc and λc for TE10 modes
• For TE10 mode in rectangular waveguide:

u'
f c10 
2a
 c10  2a

You have to also note that any EM wave with frequency f  f c10 (or   c10 )
will not be propagated in the guide since TE10 is the dominant mode.
 Usable Frequency Range
• Single mode propagation is highly desirable
to reduce dispersion
• This occurs between cutoff frequency for
TE10 mode and twice that frequency
• It’s not good to use guide at the extremes of
this range. WHY?
Note: The keyword is Single Mode Propagation
 WHY ?
1 f  c  2b  f c  
2

  c  TE10  1    
b   f c   
2
a  f   c
 c 1   f   
   

 c   when f  f c f
fc

For a given dimension a,   as b 

But as b , (fc)TE11  or (fc)TM11 

 BW   We don’t want any BW reduction!

The usual compromise is b/a  1/2 or a = 2b

 WHY ?
TE 01
TE11
TE10 TE 20
b/a=1/2 TM11
 
Or: a = 2b  f c /  f c  TE
10
1 2 3

TE 01 TE 02
TE11
TE10 TE 20
b/a=1 TM11
 
 f c /  f c  TE
10
1 2
a a

 b  
b E E E

TE10 TE20
 EXAMPLE 1
• By using Table 1, write down and sketch
the instantaneous field expressions of
E xs , E ys, E zs,H xs, H ys,H zs
for TE10 mode.
Hints: You have to convert from phasor form to time domain
Recall that:

Trigonometric Identities involved: e j(t  z)  cos t   z 

  
cos A    sin A j
 2 je 2
  
sin  A     cos A j
 2  j  e 2
 How?
1. For instance, take Hzs:

 mx   ny   z Phasor Domain

Hzs  H o cos  cos e
 a   b 

2. Now you have to convert into time domain in the form below:
H z  Re(H zse j t ) Time Domain
3. Solve the equation above and you will end up getting this expression
 x  
H z  H o cos  cos wt  z  Time Domain Done!
 a 
4. Sketch the variation of Hz with x from the expression in Step 4
(on the next slide)
slide
 Amplitude, A  H o cos t
At z = 0;

Variation of the field

components with x for
TE10 mode
a
At z = 0; Amplitude, A  H o sin t


At z = 0;
a
Amplitude, A   H o sin t

 EXAMPLE 2
• A rectangular waveguide with dimensions
a=2.5cm and b=1cm is to operate below
15.1GHz. How many TE and TM modes
can the waveguide transmit if the guide is
filled with a medium characterized by σ=0,
ε=4εo, μr=1? Calculate the cutoff
frequencies of the modes.
 Hints:
1. Let us fix m first
TE01, TE02, TE03,… Maximum n = 2
2. Fix n
TE10, TE20, TE30, TE40, TE50, TE60Maximum m = 5
3. Set n=1,
n=1 TE11, TM11, TE21, TM21,TE31, TM31,TE41, TM41,
TE51, TM51
4. Set n=2,
n=2 TE12, TM12, TE22, TM22, TE32, TM32, TE42, TM42,
TE52, TM52
5. It is evident that fix m and increase n will quickly give us
fc,mn>15.1GHz
 Answer:

11 TE modes and 4 TM modes

 Example 3
• From Example 2, calculate the phase
constant, phase velocity and wave
impedance for TE10 and TM11 modes at
the operating frequency of 15GHz.

Answer:
For TE10, β=615.6rad/m; uph=1.5381 X 108 m/s; ηTE=192.4Ω
For TM11, β=529.4rad/m; uph=1.78 X 108 m/s; ηTM=158.8Ω
 EXAMPLE 4
An air-filled 5-by 2-cm waveguide has:

E zs  20 sin( 40x ) sin(50y)e  jz V / m

at 15GHz.
(a) What mode is being propagated?
(b) Find β
(c) Determine Ey/Ex

Answer: (a) TM21 (b) 241.3rad/m (c) 1.25tan(40πx)cot(50 πy)

 Example 5
• In a rectangular waveguide for which
a=1.5cm, b=0.8cm, σ=0, μ= μo and ε= 4εo
 x   3y   11 t  z A / m
H x  2 sin  cos  sin    10
 a   b   
Determine:
(a) The mode of operation
(b) The cutoff frequency
(c) The phase constant
(d) The propagation constant
(e) The intrinsic wave impedance
Answer: (a) Can be both TM13 or TE13. Let it be TM13. TE13 is left as an exercise.
(b) 28.57GHz (c) 1718.81 rad/m (d) γ=jβ=j1718.81 /m (e) 154.7Ω
 In Summary: for Rectangular Waveguides

• Dominant mode is TE10

– 1 half cycle along long dimension (a)
– No half cycles along short dimension (b)
– Cutoff for a = c/2

• Modes with next higher cutoff frequency are TE01

and TE20 (Usable Frequency Range)
– Both have cutoff frequency twice that for TE10
In Summary: Rectangular Waveguides
 Wave Propagation in the Guide
• A wave within the waveguide can be
resolved into a combination of plane waves
reflected from the waveguide walls.
• Electric and Magnetic field distribution in
the guide is basically formed by the
superposition of a pair of TEM waves
 Concept of Wavefront
Bold line : constant phase at the maximum value ( E 0 )
Lighter line : constant phase at the minimum value (E 0 )

(a) A y-polarized TEM wave propagate in the +z direction

(b) Wavefront view of the wave or Plane Wave
Wavefront or Plane Wave
• Now consider a pair of identical
TEM waves in (a).
• These waves are combined
together in (b).
• Notice that horizontal lines can
be drawn on the superposed
waves that correspond to zero
total field (intersection
between maximum and
minimum)

We take two identical y-polarized TEM waves,

rotate one by + and the other by – as
shown in (a), and combine them in (b).
 • The electric field distribution existed in the waveguide
may be depicted as a sum of two plane TEM waves
propagating along zigzag paths between the guide walls at
x = a and x = b
-θ
Decomposition of
TE10 mode into two
plane waves can be
θ
extended to any
TE and TM modes

When n and m
uu = u’
are both different
from zero, four
plane waves result
from the decomposition
• From the zigzag paths, we are going to have three types
of velocity:
1. Medium velocity, u’ 2. The phase velocity, uph
lAC Velocity at which constant phase are
u'  propagated down the guide
t AC
lAD
uph  = ω/β
Thus, u '  1  t AD
u' u'
u
Hence, ph  
cos  fc  2

1  
f 

This shows that u ph  u ' since cos   1

If u '  c, then u ph will be greater than the
speed of light in the vacuum.
 3. The group velocity, ug
• Essentially the velocity of propagation of the electric field
distribution along the waveguide
• It is the energy propagation velocity and is always less than
equal to u’
1 2
f 
ug  OR: u g  u ' cos   u ' 1   c 
d d f 
2
Note that: u ph u g  u '

• The wave component in the +z-direction has a different

wavelength from that of the plane waves. This wavelength
along the axis of the guide is called waveguide wavelength and
is given by:  g  '
f 
2 where  ' u ' f
1  c 
f 
The Idea of Group Velocity, Ug
• The velocity with which the
envelope – or equivalently the
wave group – travels through
the medium is called the
group velocity, ug
• As such, ug is the velocity of
the energy carried by the
wave group and of the information
encoded in it.
Modulated waveform represents
the wave group
 u ph    (ratio)
u g  d d (slope) ω-β for TE and TM modes
in a hollow rectangular
waveguide

•For TEM line, uph=ug and

starts at ω=0
•For TE/TM modes, they
start at a cutoff frequency
specific to that mode below
which there is no propagation
•At close frequencies to
cutoff,
uph and ug assume very
ω=0 different values
i.e.: At cutoff, uph = ∞, ug = 0
• As frequency increases,
ω-β curves of TE/TM modes
approach the TEM line.
 NOTE THAT:
• Above cutoff (f > fc),
uph ≥ u’ and ug ≤ u’

• As f  ∞ , TE and TM modes approach

TEM case in which uph = ug = u’
 DO U KNOW THAT?
Information travels in group
velocity which must be less than
the speed of light or else
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity
will be violated.

Phase velocity on the other hand

can easily exceed the speed of
light

Einstein Theory of Relativity states that:

Messages cannot travel faster than the speed of light!
 Example 6
A standard air-filled rectangular waveguide
with dimensions a=8.636cm, b=4.318cm is fed
by a 4GHz carrier from a coaxial cable.
Determine if a TE10 mode will be propagated.
If so, calculate the phase velocity and the group
velocity.

Answer: TE10 will be propagated; 3.33x108 m/s; 2.702 x 108 m/s

 Example 7
Repeat Example 6 for TM11

Answer: TM11 = 3.88 GHZ will be propagated,

Vph = 12.29 x 108 m/s;
Vg = 7.293 x 107 m/s
 POWER TRANSMISSION
• In order to determine the power flow in the waveguide, we have
to find the average Poynting vector at first.
1
Pave  Re(Es  H*s )
2
• Since the vector has direction, we know that the Poynting
vector is along the +z-direction. Thus,
1
Pave  Re(E xs H*ys  E ysH*xs )a z
2
2 2
E xs  E ys
 az
2
Where η = ηTE for TE modes or η = ηTM for TM modes
• The total average power transmitted across
the cross section of the waveguide will then
be:
Pave   Pave  dS
2 2
a b E xs  E ys
   dydx
x 0 y 0 2

• We are more concern with attenuation in

the lossy waveguides.
 Example 8
An air-filled rectangular waveguide of
dimensions a=4cm, b=2cm transports
energy in the dominant mode at a rate of
2mW. If the frequency of operation is
10GHz, determine the peak value of the
electric field in the waveguide.

HINT:
Indefinite Integral
2 x sin 2ax Answer: Eo = 63.77V/m
 sin ax dx   C
2 4a
 Attenuation in Lossy
Waveguides
• When the dielectric medium is lossy (σ ≠ 0) and the guide
walls are not perfectly conducting (σc ≠ ∞), there will be a
continuous loss of power as the wave propagates along the
guide.
• Thus, the power flow in the guide will be in the form of:

Pave  Po e  2  z

Where Po is the input power to the guide

Attenuation in Lossy Waveguides – cont.
• To conserve the energy, the rate of decrease in Pave must equal
the time average power loss, PL per unit length. Therefore,
dPave PL
PL    2Pave OR 
dz 2Pave
• In general:
  c  d Attenuation constant due to dielectric
losses (σ ≠ 0)

Attenuation constant due to ohmic

or conduction losses (σc ≠ ∞)

Note that: If αd << αc , αd can be neglected!

Test for Lossless Dielectric Medium

• Use loss tangent test:


If  1


Assume lossless dielectric medium

 αc for TEmn where n≠0

 
 b  b 2 2 
2  m  n  2 
 c |TE 
2R s 1  b   f c   a  a  1   f c   
2  a   f  2   f  
f b
b' 1   c   m2  n 2  
f   a2 
 αc for TE10

2R s  1 b f 2
 c 
 c |TE10     
2 2 a  f  
 fc  
b' 1    
f 
 αc for TMmn

2R s 3 2
 b a m  n 2
 c |TM 
2  b a  2 m2  n 2
 fc 
b' 1   
f 
αd for both TE and TM Modes

'
d 
2
 fc 
2 1  
f 
 Skin Resistance, Rs
• Rs for both TE and TM modes can be defined as the skin
resistance of the wall.
• It may be regarded as the resistance of 1m by δ by 1 m of
the conducting material. It can be written as:

1 f
Rs  
c c

δ is the skin depth

 Example 9
A copper-plated waveguide (σc=5.8×107
mhos/m) operating at 4.8GHz is supposed
to deliver a minimum power of 1.2kW to an
antenna. If the guide is filled with
polystyrene (σ=10-17 S/m, ε=2.55εo) and its
dimensions are a=4.2cm, b=2.6cm.
Calculate the power dissipated in a length
60cm of the guide in the TE10 mode.

Note that: If αd << αc , αd can be neglected!

Waveguide Current and Mode Excitation
Surface current on guide
wall for TE10 mode

E & H field for

TE10 mode
The probe is located at x = a/2
to excite TE10 mode

• A WG is usually fed or excited by a coaxial line or another WG.

• A probe (central conductor of a coaxial line is often used) to established
field intensities of desired mode and achieve maximum power transfer
• The probe is located to produce E and H that are roughly parallel to the
lines
 RECALL:
Anatomy of Coaxial Cable

Inner conductor of a coaxial

cable acts as a probe
MODE EXCITATION
IN THE
WAVEGUIDE
 RESONATOR (for Energy Storage)
• Is a part of microwave oscillator
• Basically the purpose of oscillator is to generate a microwave signal and can be
divided into two parts:
(a) A resonator – to generate waves of specific frequencies
or to select specific frequencies from a signal
(b) An active device – to generate microwave power
• DEFINITION: A resonator is a device or system that exhibits
resonance or resonant behaviour. Many objects that use resonant effects are
referred to simply as resonators.
• When we reach high frequencies (100MHz and above), the RLC elements
becomes inefficient when used as resonators due to the fact that at this frequency
range, the dimensions of the circuits are comparable with the operating
wavelength. Thus, unwanted radiation will occur  replace with
electromagnetic cavity resonators.
resonators
CAVITY?
 RECALL BACK: RLC Circuit
• An RLC circuit (also known as a resonant circuit or a tuned circuit)
is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a
capacitor (C), connected in series or in parallel.
• Tuned circuits have many applications particularly for oscillating
circuits and in radio and communication engineering.
• They can be used to select a certain narrow range of frequencies from
the total spectrum of ambient radio waves.
• For example, AM/FM radios with analog tuners typically use an RLC
circuit to tune a radio frequency.
• Most commonly a variable capacitor (varactor diode) is attached to
the tuning knob, which allows you to change the value of C in the circuit
and tune to stations on different frequencies.
 RESONANCE
• The tendency of a system to oscillate at maximum amplitude
at a certain frequency
• This frequency is the system’s natural frequency of vibration,
resonant frequency or eigenfrequency
• A resonant object, whether mechanical, acoustic or electrical will
probably have more than one resonance frequency
• It will be easy to vibrate at those frequency and more difficult to
vibrate at other frequencies
• In effect, the object will filter out all frequencies other than it
resonant frequency.
 Electromagnetic Cavity Resonators
• A cavity resonator, usually used in reference to
electromagnetic resonators, is one in which the waves
exist in a hollow space inside the device.
• Such resonator cavities are used in Klystron tubes,
bandpass filters and wave meters.
• Microwave oven on the other hand consists of a power
supply, a waveguide feed and an oven cavity.
 RESONANT CAVITY
AS A BANDPASS
FILTER

• As a bandpass filter, the

function of a resonant cavity is
to filter out all frequency
components contained in the
input signal except for those
whose frequencies fall within
a narrow band surrounding
a specific center frequency
or fo
• The resonant frequency is
also at fo
 RESONANT CAVITY
AS A MICROWAVE
OSCILLATOR

• The resonator is a half-wavelength

long section of waveguide connected
by a small coupling holes to the input
and output of WG
• The graph of power transmitted
through the resonator as a function
of frequency is shown in (b)
• Power is transmitted through the
cavity only in a narrow frequency
range around fo
• The most power is transmitted at fo
when a half-wavelength of the
microwave field exactly fits into the
cavity
 DO YOU KNOW THAT?
The cavity resonant frequency, fo can be
fixed or mechanically changed by altering
the cavity dimensions or electronically
changed.
RESONANT CAVITY
AS A MICROWAVE
OSCILLATOR
TYPES OF RESONATORS
A popular resonator used with bipolar and FET oscillators
Can be used up to 20GHz
 Provides the highest Q (Quality Factor) of any resonator
 Thus, provides the most stable frequency
 However, it is large especially at the low end of microwave
frequency band and not compatible with microstrip mounting
 Has almost as good a Q as the metal rectangular cavity
 Much smaller since a coaxial transmission line does not need
a half-wavelength width as the rectangular cavity does
 Easy to fabricate but has low Q
 Oscillators using it have poor frequency stability
 Has almost as good a Q as the metal rectangular or coaxial
cavities
 Size is compatible with microstrip dimensions in the microwave
band above 5GHz
 Also known as Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)
 Provides a small resonator at the low end of the microwave
band below 1GHz with much higher Q that could be obtained
by stripline resonators
 Uses Lithium Niobate, a piezoelectric material
Rectangular Cavity
 Rectangular Cavity
• Consider a rectangular cavity (or closed conducting box).
• Noticed that the cavity is simply a rectangular waveguides shorted at
both ends.
• The cavity has interior surfaces which reflect a wave of a specific
frequency.
• When a wave that is resonant with the cavity enters, it bounces back and
forth within the cavity, with low loss.
• As more wave energy enters the cavity, it combines with and reinforces
the standing wave.
• The field constitute a standing waves along x- and y-direction and
along a propagating wave along z-direction
• In cavity, there is no unique propagation direction because there is no
propagation but instead, standing waves exist along all three directions.
• For consistency, we will continue to define transverse direction to be
any direction contained in the plane perpendicular to z-direction.
 TM Modes to z-direction
Hz = 0 and as usual we let:
E zs ( x , y, z)  X( x )Y( y) Z(z) (2.29)
X ( x )  c1 cos k x x  c 2 sin k x x (2.30a)
Where: Y( y)  c3 cos k y y  c 4 sin k y y (2.30b)
Z(z)  c5 cos k z z  c6 sin k z z (2.30c)
2 2 2 2 2
and: k  k x  k y  k z    (2.31)
• The boundary conditions are such that:
Ez = 0 at x = 0,a (2.32a)
Ez = 0 at y = 0,b (2.32b)
Ey = 0, Ex = 0 at z = 0, c (2.32c)
• We will get: (2.33)
 mx   ny   pz  Where: E o  c 2 c 4 c5
E zs  E o sin  sin   cos 
 a   b   c  p = 0,1,2,3,…
Other field components can be found from Eq. 2.33 and 2.16
 In Rectangular Cavity, β = k
 2 n 2 p 2
 m     
2  k 2          (2.34) From Eq. 2.31
 a  b c

Where: 2  2 (2.35)

Resonant Frequency, fr

From Eq. 2.35; 2f r  r   u '


u'  m 2  n 2  p 2
Thus, fr   
2  a   b   c 
 Resonant Wavelength, λr
u' 2
r  
fr 2 2 2
m  n   p
 a   b   c 

NOTE THAT:

The lowest-order TM mode is TM110

 TE Modes to z-direction
• Let Ez = 0. Thus, (2.36)
H zs  (b1 cos k x x  b 2 sin k x x )(b3 cos k y y  b4 sin k y y)(b5 cos k z z  sin k z z)
• The boundary conditions will then be:
H zs  0 at z  0, c (2.37a)
H zs x  0, a (2.37b)
0 at
x
H zs y  0, b (2.37c)
0 at
y
Using this boundary conditions on Eq. 2.36 will give us:
 mx   ny   pz  (2.38)
H zs  H 0 cos  cos  cos 
 a   b   c 
p = 1,2,3,…
Other field components can be find from Eq. 2.38 and 2.16
 Resonant Frequency for TE Modes
• The resonant frequency for TE modes is the same
like the TM modes except that m or n (but not
both at the same time) can be zero for TE modes.
• If a  b  c, this implies that 1 / a  1 / b  1 / c.
• Thus, the lowest order of mode is TE101 .
• Note that, for the same cavity dimensions of a  b  c,
the resonant frequency of TM110 is higher than
that of TE101 .
• Thus, TE101 is the dominant mode.
 To Summarize:

TE Modes TM Modes

Lowest-Order TE101
Mode
TM110
for a > b < c

Dominant Mode TE101

 DEGENERATE MODES
• When different modes have the same
resonant frequency, the modes are
degenerate – one mode will dominate
others depending on how the cavity is
excited.
 Quality Factor, Q
• Q is one way to determine the loss.
• It can also be defined as a measure of the
bandwidth of the cavity resonator

Time average energy stored

Q  2.
Energy loss per cycle of oscillation
W W
 2. 
PLT PL
T = 1/f is the period of oscillation
Where: PL is the time average power loss in the cavity
W is the total time average energy stored in electric
and magnetic fields in the cavity
 QTE101
• Q is usually high for a cavity resonator
compared with the RLC resonant circuit.
• Thus, cavity resonator is better than RLC
resonant circuit
• Q ↑, the lower the LOSS
(a 2  c2 )abc
QTE101 
3 3 2 2
[2b(a  c )  ac(a  c )]
1
Where:  is the skin depth of the
f101oc cavity walls
 Advantages of Waveguide filters and Cavity
Resonators in SatComm applications
• Waveguide filters and cavity resonators are larger and
heavier than the microstrip and other transmission line
equivalents but they have the following advantages for
Satellite Communication applications in terms of:
 Power handling capacity
 Lower losses (resistive and dielectric)
 Dimensional stability against vibration, changes in
temperature and pressure
 Frequency and bandpass response stability
 Ease of tuning after manufacture
 Robustness
 No dielectric. Thus, non-linearities in high fields are less.
 Example 10
(a) A resonant mode in cavity is denoted by
TEmnp or TMmnp mode. What does the
subscripts m, n and p correspond to?

(b) An air-filled cubical cavity operates at a

resonant frequency of 2 GHz when excited
at TE101 mode.
Determine the dimensions of the cavity.
 Additional Example
Design a rectangular waveguide with an
aspect ratio of 3 to 1 for use in the k-band
(18 – 26.5GHz). Assume the guide is air-
filled.
 Additional Example
An air-filled rectangular waveguide has a=6cm
and b=3cm. Given that:

 2x   3y   12
E z  5 sin   sin   cos10 t  z V / m
 a   b   

Calculate the intrinsic impedance of this mode and

the average power flow in the guide.
 Additional Example
A rectangular waveguide with cross-sections in
figure below has dielectric discontinuity. Calculate
the standing wave ratio if the guide operates at
8GHz in the dominant mode.

y 1 2

 o   o o ,2.25o
2.5cm
x z
5cm

2  1
Hint:  
2  1
PLEASE STUDY FOR YOUR QUIZ 2!