INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND

NDT

RAJNEESH VACHASPATI
ASSISTANT DIRECTOR
NPTI-HPTC,NANGAL
 WHAT IS WELDING?

Welding is a materials joining process which produces

coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable
temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by
the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use
of filler material.
USE OF WELDING
Welding is used for making permanent joints.
It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft
frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works,
tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.
 WELDING TYPES
• Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding
The piece of metal to be joined are
heated to a plastic state and forced
together by external pressure
(Ex) Resistance welding
• Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding
The material at the joint is heated to a molten
state and allowed to solidify
(Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding
 WELDING PROCESSES
(i). Arc welding •(iv)Thermit Welding
•Carbon arc •(v)Solid State Welding
•Metal arc – Friction
•Metal inert gas – Ultrasonic
•Tungsten inert gas – Diffusion
•Plasma arc – Explosive
•Submerged arc •(vi)Newer Welding
•Electro-slag – Electron-beam
(ii). Gas Welding – Laser
•Oxy-acetylene •(vii)Related Process
•Air-acetylene – Oxy-acetylene cutting
•Oxy-hydrogen – Arc cutting
(iii). Electrical Resistance Welding – Hard facing
•Butt – Brazing
•Spot – Soldering
•Seam
•Projection
•Percussion
 ARC WELDING

• A group of fusion welding processes that use an

electric arc to produce the heat required for
melting the metal.
• Advantages
– Inexpensive power source
– Relatively inexpensive equipment
– Welders use standard domestic current.
– Portable equipment is available
– Process is fast and reliable
– Short learning curve
– Equipment can be used for multiple functions
• Electric arc is about 9,000 oF
 What is an Electric Arc?
An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit
• It is sustained by an ionized column of gas
(plasma) through which the current flows
• To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought
into contact with work and then quickly
separated from it by a short distance
 Basic Electricity and the Science of
Welding
 Voltage – The electrical potential or pressure
that causes current to flow
 Measured in Volts
 Current – The movement of charged particles in
a specific direction
 Measured in Amps DC+
 Polarity DC -
 DC- (Direct Current (DCSP)
Electrode Negative)
 DC+ (Direct Current
Electrode Positive) AC
 AC (Alternating Current)
 Arc Welding
A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode
tip, and as electrode is moved along joint,
molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

Polarity and Current Flow

Welding Electrode or "Electrode"

Anode Cathode

I I

DCEP DCEN

Cathode Anode

Work Electrode or "Work"

Reverse Straight
RPEP SPEN
 Plasma State

Gas is hot enough so that high energy collisions

produce free electrons

A A e -

Plasma may only be a few % electrons

Conduction of Current in the Arc
Cathode

Electrons Emitted
Thermal
Ionization Free
Electron

Ion
Plasma
T>10,000K Recombination

Anode Neutral
Gas Atom

Electrons Absorbed
 Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes
• Consumable – consumed during welding
process
– Source of filler metal in arc welding
• Nonconsumable – not consumed during
welding process
– Filler metal must be added separately
 Consumable Electrodes
• Forms of consumable electrodes
– Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18 inches and 3/8 inch
or less in diameter and must be changed frequently
– Weld wire can be continuously fed from spools with long
lengths of wire, avoiding frequent interruptions
• In both rod and wire forms, electrode is
consumed by arc and added to weld joint as
filler metal
 Electrode Nomenclature
• E ABCD Tupe of Coationg

Position

Tensile Strength in 1000 PSI

Position of Electrode(3rd Digit)
1 indicates : All position
2 indicates : Horizontal and flat
3 indicates : Vertical with downward
progression.
Fourth Digit of Electrode specification
 Nonconsumable Electrodes
• Made of tungsten which resists melting
• Gradually depleted during welding
(vaporization is principal mechanism)
• Any filler metal must be supplied by a
separate wire fed into weld pool
 Arc Shielding
• At high temperatures in AW, metals are
chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen in air
– Mechanical properties of joint can be seriously degraded
by these reactions
– To protect operation, arc must be shielded from
surrounding air in AW processes
• Arc shielding is accomplished by:
– Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
– Flux
 Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides
and other contaminants in welding, or
dissolves them and facilitates removal
• Provides protective atmosphere for welding
• Stabilizes arc
• Reduces spattering
 Various Flux Application Methods
• Pouring granular flux onto welding operation
• Stick electrode coated with flux material that
melts during welding to cover operation
• Tubular electrodes in which flux is contained
in the core and released as electrode is
consumed
 Power Source in Arc Welding
• Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)
– AC machines less expensive to purchase and operate, but
generally restricted to ferrous metals
– DC equipment can be used on all metals and is generally
noted for better arc control
 Consumable Electrode AW Processes
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• Gas Metal Arc Welding
• Flux-Cored Arc Welding
• Electrogas Welding
• Submerged Arc Welding
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a
filler metal rod coated with chemicals that
provide flux and shielding
• Sometimes called "stick welding"
• Power supply, connecting cables, and
electrode holder available for a few thousand
dollars
Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Figure 31.3 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).

 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Shielded metal arc

welding (stick welding)
performed by a (human)
welder (photo courtesy
of Hobart Brothers Co.).
 SMAW Applications
• Used for steels, stainless steels,
cast irons, and certain
nonferrous alloys
• Not used or rarely used for
aluminum and its alloys, copper
alloys, and titanium
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Uses a consumable bare metal wire as
electrode and shielding accomplished by
flooding arc with a gas
• Wire is fed continuously and automatically
from a spool through the welding gun
• Shielding gases include inert gases such as
argon and helium for aluminum welding,
and active gases such as CO2 for steel
welding
• Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases
eliminate slag on weld bead - no need for
manual grinding and cleaning of slag
 Gas Metal Arc Welding

Figure 31.4 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).

 GMAW Advantages over SMAW
• Better arc time because of continuous wire
electrode
– Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW
• Better use of electrode filler metal than
SMAW
– End of stick cannot be used in SMAW
• Higher deposition rates
• Eliminates problem of slag removal
• Can be readily automated
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire
electrode, with arc shielding provided
by a cover of granular flux
• Electrode wire is fed automatically
from a coil
• Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead
of arc by gravity from a hopper
– Completely submerges operation, preventing
sparks, spatter, and radiation
Submerged Arc Welding

Figure 31.8 Submerged arc welding.

 SAW Applications and Products
• Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g.,
I-beams)
• Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels
• Welded components for heavy machinery
• Most steels (except hi C steel)
• Not good for nonferrous metals
 Non-consumable Electrode
Processes
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
• Plasma Arc Welding
• Carbon Arc Welding
• Stud Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Figure 31.9 Gas tungsten arc welding.

 Advantages / Disadvantages of GTAW
Advantages:
• High quality welds for suitable applications
• No spatter because no filler metal through arc
• Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
Disadvantages:
• Generally slower and more costly than consumable
electrode AW processes
 Resistance Welding (RW)
A group of fusion welding processes that use a
combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence
• Heat generated by electrical resistance to
current flow at junction to be welded
• Principal RW process is resistance spot
welding (RSW)
 Resistance Welding

Figure 31.12 Resistance

welding, showing the
components in spot
welding, the main
process in the RW group.
 Components in Resistance Spot
Welding
• Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)
• Two opposing electrodes
• Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts
between electrodes
• Power supply from which a controlled current
can be applied for a specified time duration
 Advantages / Drawbacks of RW
Advantages:
• No filler metal required
• High production rates possible
• Lends itself to mechanization and automation
• Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
• Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages:
• High initial equipment cost
• Limited to lap joints for most RW processes
 Spot Welding Cycle

Figure 31.13 (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force & current in
cycle (1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close, force
applied, (3) current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes opened.
Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)
Uses rotating wheel electrodes to
produce a series of overlapping
spot welds along lap joint
• Can produce air-tight joints
• Applications:
– Gasoline tanks
– Automobile mufflers
– Various other sheet metal containers
 Resistance Seam Welding

Figure 31.15 Resistance seam welding (RSEW).

 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
Fusion welding performed by a high
temperature flame from combustion of
acetylene and oxygen
• Flame is directed by a welding torch
• Filler metal is sometimes added
– Composition must be similar to base metal
– Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces and
prevent oxidation
 Oxyacetylene Welding

Figure 31.21 A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

 Acetylene (C2H2)
• Most popular fuel among OFW group because
it is capable of higher temperatures than any
other - up to 3480C (6300F)
• Two stage chemical reaction of acetylene and
oxygen:
– First stage reaction (inner cone of flame):
C2H2 + O2  2CO + H2 + heat
– Second stage reaction (outer envelope):
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2  2CO2 + H2O + heat
 Oxyacetylene Torch
• Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner
cone, while outer envelope spreads out and
shields work surfaces from atmosphere

Figure 31.22 The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch

indicating temperatures achieved.
 Alternative Gases for OFW
• Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP)
• Hydrogen
• Propylene
• Propane
• Natural Gas
 Other Fusion Welding Processes
FW processes that cannot be classified as arc,
resistance, or oxyfuel welding
• Use unique technologies to develop heat for
melting
• Applications are typically unique
• Processes include:
– Electron beam welding
– Laser beam welding
– Electroslag welding
– Thermit welding
 Weldability
Capacity of a metal or combination of metals to
be welded into a suitably designed structure,
and for the resulting weld joint(s) to possess
the required metallurgical properties to
perform satisfactorily in intended service
• Good weldability characterized by:
– Ease with which welding process is accomplished
– Absence of weld defects
– Acceptable strength, ductility, and toughness in welded
joint
 WELDING POSITIONS

FLAT
HORIZONTAL VERTICAL

OVERHEAD
WELD JOINT
WELD JOINT
 Definition of NDT
The use of noninvasive
techniques to determine
the integrity of a material,
component or structure
or
quantitatively measure
some characteristic of
an object.

i.e. Inspect or measure without doing harm.

 What are Some Uses
of NDE Methods?
• Flaw Detection and Evaluation
• Leak Detection
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements Fluorescent penetrant indication

• Structure and Microstructure Characterization

• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response Measurements
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Determination
When are NDE Methods Used?
There are NDE application at almost any stage
in the production or life cycle of a component.
– To assist in product development
– To screen or sort incoming materials
– To monitor, improve or control manufacturing
processes
– To verify proper processing such as heat treating
– To verify proper assembly
– To inspect for in-service damage
Most Common NDT Methods
• Visual
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic
• Ultrasonic
• X-ray
Most Common NDT Methods
• Visual
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic
• Ultrasonic
• X-ray
 Visual Inspection
Most basic and common
inspection method.

Tools include fiberscopes,

borescopes, magnifying glasses
and mirrors.

Portable video inspection unit

with zoom allows inspection of
large tanks and vessels, railroad
tank cars, sewer lines.

Robotic crawlers permit observation

in hazardous or tight areas, such as
air ducts, reactors, pipelines.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
• A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the
surface of the part and allowed time to seep into surface
breaking defects.
• The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the part.

• A developer (powder) is applied to pull the trapped

penetrant out the defect and spread it on the surface where
it can be seen.
• Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The
penetrant used is often loaded with a fluorescent dye and
the inspection is done under UV light to increase test
sensitivity.
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment
are then applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux
leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting
conditions.
Magnetic Particle Crack Indications
 Radiography
The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher
energy (shorter wavelength) version of the
High Electrical Potential
electromagnetic waves that we
see as visible light. The radiation can come from an
X-ray generator or a radioactive source. Electrons
+ -

X-ray Generator or
Radioactive Source
Creates Radiation

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

 Film Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation source
and a piece of film. The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop
more of the radiation.

The film darkness (density) will

vary with the amount of
radiation reaching the film
X-ray film through the test object.

= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
Radiographic Images
Eddy Current Testing
It is suitrd to detect surface defects
Ultrasonic Inspection (Pulse-Echo)
High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and they are
reflected back from surfaces or flaws.
Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can
visualize a cross section of the specimen showing the depth of features
that reflect sound. f

initial
pulse

back surface
echo
crack
echo

crack
0 2 4 6 8 10 plate
Oscilloscope, or
flaw detector
 Ultrasonic Imaging
High resolution images can be produced by plotting signal strength or
time-of-flight using a computer-controlled scanning system.

Gray scale image produced using the Gray scale image produced using the sound
sound reflected from the front surface of reflected from the back surface of the coin
the coin (inspected from “heads” side)
 Common Application of NDT
• Inspection of Raw Products
• Inspection Following Secondary
Processing
• In-Services Damage Inspection
 Inspection of Raw Products
• Forgings,
• Castings,
• Extrusions,
• etc.
 Inspection Following
Secondary Processing
• Machining
• Welding
• Grinding
• Heat treating
• Plating
• etc.
 Inspection For
In-Service Damage

• Cracking
• Corrosion
• Erosion/Wear
• Heat Damage
• etc.
Power Plant Inspection
Periodically, power plants are shutdown
for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current probes into
heat exchanger tubes to check for
corrosion damage.

Pipe with damage Prob

e by
Signals produced
various amounts of
corrosion thinning.
 Wire Rope Inspection
Electromagnetic devices and visual
inspections are used to find broken
wires and other damage to the wire
rope that is used in chairlifts, cranes
and other lifting devices.
 Storage Tank Inspection
Robotic crawlers use
ultrasound to inspect the
walls of large above
ground tanks for signs of
thinning due to corrosion.

Cameras on long
articulating arms
are used to
inspect
underground
storage tanks for
damage.
 Aircraft Inspection
• Nondestructive testing is used
extensively during the manufacturing of
aircraft.
• NDT is also used to find cracks and
corrosion damage during operation of
the aircraft.
• A fatigue crack that started at the site of
a lightning strike is shown below.
 Jet Engine Inspection
• Aircraft engines are overhauled after being in
service for a period of time.
• They are completely disassembled, cleaned,
inspected and then reassembled.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to
check many of the parts for cracking.
Crash of United Flight 232
Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
A defect that went
undetected in an engine
disk was responsible for
the crash of United
Flight 232.
 Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel can result
in the rapid release of a large amount of
energy. To protect against this dangerous
event, the tanks are inspected using
radiography and ultrasonic testing.
 Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to inspect
thousands of miles of rail to find
cracks that could lead to a
derailment.
 Bridge Inspection
• The US has 578,000 highway
bridges.
• Corrosion, cracking and other
damage can all affect a bridge’s
performance.
• The collapse of the Silver Bridge in
1967 resulted in loss of 47 lives.
• Bridges get a visual inspection
about every 2 years.
• Some bridges are fitted with
acoustic emission sensors that
“listen” for sounds of cracks
growing.
 Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines to prevent
leaks that could damage the environment.
Visual inspection, radiography and
electromagnetic testing are some of the NDT
methods used.

Remote visual inspection

using a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage

inspection. This device, known
as a pig, is placed in the
pipeline and collects data on the
condition of the pipe as it is Radiography of weld joints.
pushed along by whatever is
 Special Measurements
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of evaluating
the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy current methods
were used to measure the electrical conductivity of the Bell's bronze
casing at various points to evaluate its uniformity.
For More Information on NDT

The Collaboration for NDT

Education

www.ndt-ed.org

The American Society for

Nondestructive Testing

www.asnt.org