Superconductors

1. Electrical resistance falls as temperature increases

2. Resistance falls to zero at the critical temperature

3. A current induced in a superconductor will flow forever

4. Superconductors repel magnetic fields

5. Superconductors are said to be magnetic because they repel

magnetic fields

6. Superconductors are used in magnetic resonance imaging

7. In the future, superconductors might be useful in power transmission and

in frictionless bearings.
 Semiconductors
• solid-state materials with many technical applications

• most valuable property is increase in conductivity

with increasing temperature (p38 LTS)

• conductivity measured in Siemens, S, = ohm-1

 Energy levels and bands
Isolated atom solid

band
band gap
Increasing band
energy
band gap

band

Energy levels in Energy bands in

an isolated atom solid
 Energy levels and bands cont.
conductor
band
insulator semiconductor

lowest unfilled band

Increasing
energy small energy gap
large energy gap

highest occupied
band
valence band
 Semiconductors

Elements such as silicon and germanium are

semiconductors and are part of a
set of elements called metalloids, occurring
at the division between metals and non-metals.

The bonding in silicon and germanium

is similar to diamond but their bonds are
weaker. This results in a conductivity higher
than that of a non-metal, which has no free
electrons, but lower than that of a true metal,
which has mobile electrons
Semiconductors cont.

Semiconductor conductivity
also increases with exposure
to light thus applications
include
- photographic light meters
- automated lighting sensors
- photocopiers
The absorption of photons of light by semiconductors promotes
electrons from the valence band into the conduction band, leaving
electron vacancies called positive holes.

+ -

electron positive hole

If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and the hole can
contribute to a small current flow.
 Doping
The conduction can be considerably affected by the presence of impurities.

Deliberate addition of impurities is called doping

1 atom of dopant per 1 x 109 atoms of parent element

 N-Type Semiconductors
The addition of pentavalent impurities such as phosphorous, arsenic
or antimony contributes free electrons, greatly increasing the conductivity
of the intrinsic semiconductor.
 P-Type Semiconductors
The addition of trivalent impurities such as boron, aluminium or gallium
to an intrinsic semiconductor introduces positive holes.

p & n-type semiconductors

 Semi-conductor crystals
Crystals of germanium or silicon

Doped with group Electrons in the lowest

5 element unfilled (conduction) band
n-type carry the charge

p-n junction

p-type

Doped with group Positive holes in the highest

3 element (valence) occupied band
carry the charge
 Semi-conductor crystals
e.g. silicon

trichlorosilane + hydrogen silicon + hydrogen chloride

SiHCl3 + H2 Si + 3HCl

diborane boron

B2H6 B

phosphine phosphorous

PH3 P
Photovoltaic cell