DC CIRCUIT

IRINEO P. QUINTO
ECE / REE
 ELECTRICAL ELEMENTS
• PASSIVE • ACTIVE
– ELEMENTS THAT – ELEMENTS
DISSIPATES POWER CAPABLE OF
– R, L, C GIVING- OFF POWER
– VOLTAGE &
CURRENT SOURCES
 FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN
CIRCUITS
• ELECTROMOTIVE • RESISTANCE
FORCE (EMF) – PROPERTY OF
– THE ENERGY ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
REQUIRED TO MOVE THAT OPPOSES THE
A CHARGE FROM FLOW OF CURRENT
ONE LOCATION • POWER
INTO ANOTHER
– THE RATE OF DOING
• CURRENT WORK
– REFERS TO THE
FLOW OF
ELECTRICAL
CHARGES
 RESISTANCE, R

L
R=
A
A
L
R= V
A2

L2
R= L - LENGTH
V
A – CROSS SECTIONAL AREA
V - VOLUME
RESISTIVITY OF COMMONLY USED
MATERIALS

MATERIAL RESISTIVITY AT
20C, (-m)
COPPER 1.732 X 10 –8
ALUMINUM 2.6 X 10 –8
SILVER 1.5 X 10 –8
GRAPHITE (CARBON) 30 TO 190 X 10 –8
NICHROME 100 X 10 –4
GLASS 10 X 1012
RESISTANCE VS TEMPERATURE

R2
R1
RO
TO
T1 T2
T1 +|TO|
T2 +|TO|
RESISTANCE VS TEMPERATURE
BY SIMILAR TRIANGLES:

R1 = R0 [ 1 + α0T1 ]

R2 = R0 [ 1 + α0T2 ]

R2 = R1 [ 1 + α1(T2 – T1)]
1 1 1
α0 = α1 = αn =
|T0| T1 + |T0| Tn + |T0|

IPQUINTO / CERTI REVIEW

CENTER / 929 MORAYTA
 COLOR CODING
COLOR OHMIC VALUE MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
(%)
Black 0 1 20
Brown 1 10 1
Red 2 100 2
Orange 3 1,000 3
Yellow 4 10,000 4
Green 5 100,000 5
Blue 6 1,000,000 6
Violet 7 10,000,000 7
Gray 8 100,000,000 8
White 9 1,000,000,000 9
Gold --- 0.10 5
Silver --- 0.01 10
No Color --- 20
CARBON TYPE RESISTOR
 FIXED RESISTORS
• CLASSIFICATION • CLASSIFICATION
ACCORDING TO ACCORDING TO THEIR
TOLERANCE
TYPE OF MATERIAL
– GENERAL PURPOSE,
– CARBON TYPE >=5%
– METAL FILM – SEMI-PRECISION, 1 TO
5%
– CARBON FILM
– PRECISION, 0.5 TO 1%
– WIRE WOUND – ULTRAPRECISION, <0.5%
 VARIABLE RESISTOR -
POTENTIOMETER
TYPE RESISTANCE / APPLICATION
TOLERANCE / POWER
RATING
SINGLE TURN 50 TO 5M,10-20%, 2-3W GAIN, TREBLE, BASS
CONTROL IN AMPLIFIER;
BRIGHTNESS &
CONTRAST CONTROL IN
TV
MULTIPLE TURN 50 TO 250 k, 3%, UP TO PRECISE SETTING OF
5W RESISTANCE (COMPUTER)
FOR ONE TIME
TRIMMER <= 1M, 10%, 1W RESISTANCE
ADJUSTMENT
 FIXED RESISTORS
MATERIAL RANGE OF POWER RATING
RESISTANCE (W)
A. CARBON TYPE 1 TO 100M 0.125 – 2
B. METAL FILM
- THIN FILM 10 TO 1 M <= 5
- TIN OXIDE <= 2.5 M <= 2
- METAL GLAZE <= 1.5 M <= 5
- CERMET 10 TO 10 M <= 3
- BULK FILM 30 TO 600 k <= 1
C. CARBON FILM 10 TO 10 M <= 2
D. WIREWOUND TYPE
- PRECISION TYPE <= 10 M <= 2
- POWER TYPE UP TO SLIGHTLY > <= 1500
1M
 VARIABLE RESISTORS
• TYPES OF • RHEOSTAT
– MADE-UP OF A
MATERIAL USED IN RESISTANCE WIRE
POTENTIOMETER WOUND ON AN OPEN
RING OF CERAMIC
– CARBON COVERED WITH
– CERMET VITREOUS ENAMEL
– USED TO CONTROL
– CONDUCTIVE MOTOR SPEED,
PLASTIC WELDING CURRENT
AND OTHER HIGH
– WIRE WOUND POWER APPLICATIONS
– CAN DISSIPATE 5 W OR
MORE
VARIABLE RESISTORS
 SERIES / PARALLEL
COMBINATION
SERIES CONNECTION

RT = R1 + R2 + . . . . . + Rn

PARALLEL CONNECTION

1 1 1 1
= + +. . .
RT R1 R2 Rn
 PRIMARY SOURCE OF DC
• CELL • BATTERY
– A DEVICE THAT – REFERS TO THE
STORES CHEMICAL COMBINATION OF
ENERGY AND CELLS
CAPABLE OF
CONVERTING IT
INTO ELECTRICAL
ENERGY
CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL
CELL
• PRIMARY CELL • SECONDARY CELL
– CHEMICALLY – CHEMICALLY
IRREVERSIBLE REVERSIBLE
CHEMICAL CELLS – PRIMARY
CELLS
NAME Vout (V) Note

Carbon-Zinc 1.50 Shelf life of 1-3 years

(Leclanche)

Manganese- 1.50 Low internal resistance; high

Alkaline Zinc current capacity, long shelf life

Mercury 1.35 – Constant output voltage, low

(Ruben) 1.40 internal resistance & can be
used at high temperatures

Silver Oxide- 1.55

Alkaline Zinc
Used as reference voltage
source, low internal resistance,
2.95 used in watches/hearing aids
Lithium
 CHEMICAL CELLS –
SECONDARY CELLS
NAME Vout NOTE

Lead Acid 2.2 Wet electrolyte, lowest cost, very low

internal resistance & very high current
ratings
Gelled- 2.1
electrolyte Moist electrolyte, sealed unit, needs lead-
acid, no water needed; calcium lead in small
sizes

Nickel-Iron 1.36 Edison cell, wet hydroxide electrolyte,

industrial used

Nickel-Cadmium 1.25 Most common rechargeable dry battery

Silver Cadmium 1.1 Rechargeable dry cell, high current rating
and energy density
Silver-Zinc 1.86 Rechargeable dry cell, high efficiency
NON-CHEMICAL CELLS
NAME Vout (V) NOTE
Photovoltaic or 0.40 Delivers power as long as junction of
Selenium selenium and iron are illuminated; battery
1 efficiency is about1%
Gallium Arsenide Efficiency of about 25% at 1V, 10A per cell
Solar Cell 0.30
Atomic or Nuclear A PN junction is bombarded by electrons
Cell (beta particles) from radio active material

Commonly used fuels are alcohol, gasoline,

Varies on the methane, kerosene and ammonia. These
Fuel Cell type of fuel must be operated at high temperature which
generates about 0.85V per 1000A/m2 of
electrode
 SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS

+
+
- -

CELL /
VOLTAGE CURRENT DEPENDENT DEPENDENT BATTERY
SOURCE SOURCE VOLTAGE CURRENT
SOURCE SOURCE
ELECTRIC CURRENT, I

dq
i= C/s or A
dt

1 C/s = 1 A
 OHM’S LAW

I +

+ V
V R I=
- R
-
POWER (P) & ENERGY (W)

P = VI (WATTS, W) W = Pt (JOULES, J)

P = V2 / R W = VIt

P = I2R
 VOLTAGE DIVIDER PRINCIPLE
Vs
I=
R1 R1 + R2 + R3
R1
+ I V1 = Vs
Vs R2 R1 + R 2 + R 3
-
R2
R3 V2 = Vs
R1 + R 2 + R 3
R3
V3 = Vs
R1 + R 2 + R 3
CURRENT DIVIDER PRINCIPLE
IS

+
Vs
- I1 R1 I
2
R2

R2 R1
I1 = IS I2 = IS
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
SERIES / PARALLEL CIRCUIT
• SERIES CIRCUIT • PARALLEL CIRCUIT
– SAME CURRENT – SAME VOLTAGE
FOR ALL ELEMENTS ACROSS EACH
– HIGHEST POWER ELEMENTS
AND VOLTAGE – HIGHEST POWER
DROP ON THE AND CURRENT ON
HIGHEST THE LOWEST
RESISTANCE IN THE RESISTANCE IN THE
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
 KIRCHOFF’S LAW
• VOLTAGE LAW • CURRENT LAW
– THE SUMMATION OF – THE SUMMATION OF
VOLTAGES WITHIN A CURRENTS IN A
LOOP IS ZERO JUNCTION IS ZERO
 MESH ANALYSIS
• ASSIGN A LOOP CURRENT FOR EACH
MESH (PREFERABLY IN THE SAME
DIRECTION)
• FORMULATE THE MESH EQUATIONS
APPLYING KVL
• SOLVE FOR THE MESH CURRENTS
 NODAL ANALYSIS
• LABEL EACH NODE
• CHOOSE A REFERENCE NODE
• ASSIGN A CURRENT FOR EACH
BRANCH
• FORMULATE THE NODAL EQUATIONS
APPLYING KCL
• SOLVE FOR THE NODAL VOLTAGE
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
• CONSIDER THE RESPONSE (VOLTAGE
OR CURRENT) IN A GIVEN BRANCH
FROM EACH INDEPENDENT SOURCE
ACTING ALONE
• THE TOTAL RESPONSE IS EQUAL TO
THE SUM OF THE INDIVIDUAL
RESPONSE FROM EACH SOURCE
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
RTH

+
Voc Voc
-

RTH
NORTON’S THEOREM

Isc Isc RTH

RTH
 RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Rs Rs

Ra
+
Vs Ra Rb Rb
-
Ia +
Ia Vs -
 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
Rs

I +

+
Vs RL Is Rp RL
-

Rp = Rs Vs = IsRp = IsRs
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
CONDITION
Rs
PL = I2RL
I +
Vs
I= +
RS + R L Vs RL
-
dPL -
=0
dRL

RS = R L
CELLS IN SERIES AIDING

E1, r1 E2, r2 En, rn

ET = E1 + E2 + . . . . . + En
rT = r1 + r2 + . . . . . . + rn
CELLS IN SERIES OPPOSING

E1, r1 E2, r2

ET = E1 - E2
rT = r1 + r2
 CELLS IN PARALLEL

E 1, r 1 E2, r2 En, rn
MILLMAN’S THEOREM

E1 E2 En
r1 + r2 + . . . . . + rn
VT =
1 1 1 1 1
r1 + r2 +. . . R + R +. . . R
1 2 n
 DELTA TO WYE CONVERSION
• ANY RESISTANCE IN WYE IS EQUAL
TO THE PRODUCT OF ADJACENT
DELTA RESISTANCES DIVIDED BY THE
SUM OF THE DELTA RESISTANCES
 WYE TO DELTA CONVERSION
• ANY RESISTANCE IN DELTA IS EQUAL
TO THE SUM OF PRODUCT OF WYE
RESISTANCES TAKEN IN PAIRS
DIVIDED BY THE OPPOSITE WYE
RESISTANCE
 INDUCTANCE, L (HENRY, H)
• PROPERTY OF AN
ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT THAT
OPPOSES
CHANGES IN
CURRENT
vL = L di
dt
• CAPABLE OF
STORING LIP2
WL = J
MAGNETIC ENERGY 2
CAPACITANCE, C (FARAD,F)
• PROPERTY OF
ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT THAT
OPPOSES THE
1
vC =  i dt CHANGES IN
C VOLTAGE
• CAPABLE OF
LVP2
WC = J STORING
2 ELECTROSTATIC
ENERGY
 INDUCTANCES IN SERIES /
PARALLEL
• SERIES

LT = L1 + L2 + . . . . . + Ln

• PARALLEL

1 1 1 1
= + +. . .
LT L1 L2 Ln
 CAPACITANCES IN SERIES /
PARALLEL
• SERIES
1 1 1 1
= + +. . .
CT C 1 C2 Cn

• PARALLEL

C T = C 1 + C2 + . . . . . + C n
 DC RL CIRCUIT
at t = 0, the switch is closed:

i(t) = E + ke –Rt/L
i(t) R R
E vR(t) = E + kRe –Rt/L
L vL(t) = - kRe –Rt/L

If i(0) = 0, then:
vR(t) = E - Ee –Rt/L
i(t) = E (1 - e –Rt/L)
R vL(t) = Ee –Rt/L
 DC RC CIRCUIT
At t=0, the switch is closed:
q(t) = EC + ke –t/RC
i(t) R
-k
E i(t) = e –t/RC
RC
C vC(t) = E + k e –t/RC
C
vR(t) = - k e –t/RC
If q(0) = 0, then: C
q(t) = EC - ECe –t/RC vC(t) = E - Ee –t/RC
E vR(t) = Ee –t/RC
i(t) = R e –t/RC
SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
CASE 1. REAL / UNEQUAL

i(t) = Aeat + Bebt

CASE 2. REAL / EQUAL

i(t) = Aeat + Bteat

CASE 3. COMPLEX CONJUGATE

i(t) = eat(Acosbt + Bsinbt)