INSTRUMENTATION AND Lecture # 1: Introduction

MEASUREMENT
[Qur'an, 29:43]“And these examples We
present to the people, but none will
understand them except those of
knowledge.”
 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

CL Description BT PLO
O After the completion of the course the students will be able to: Leve s
l
1. Understand the basic terminologies of Metrology C2 1
2. Understand and describe different types of transducers and basic C2 1
electronic instruments
3. Conduct experiments as well as analyze and interpret experimental P4 4
data
4. Use Lab View, sensors, wheat stone bridge and measurement P4 5
instrumentation to design instrumentation systems
5. Exhibit good professional and ethical behavior. Adhere to lab safety A3 8
rules.
6. Function effectively both individually and as a member of a team A4 9
GRADING POLICY
Weightages:
Quizzes: 11.25 %
Assignments: 3.75 %
OHT: 11.25 each
Lab and Project 25%
Final Exam: 37.5 %
BOOK
Introduction to Measurements and Instrumentation by Arun K Ghosh
Measurement and Instrumentation, Theory and Application, Alan, S
Morris, Reza Lengari
Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques,
Albert D. Helfrick, William D. Cooper
Experimental Methods for Engineers, J.P Holman
 MEASUREMENTS-OVERVIEW
Metrology
• Parameters of measurement and related definitions
• Types and Probability of error
• Uncertainty of measurement
• Sensitivity factor
• System of units
• Calibration of the equipment.
• Standards and its classification
MEASUREMENT AND ITS AIM
The process of measuring is essentially that of comparing some
unknown value with a value which is assumed to be known.
A measuring system is called an instrument or scale or meter or
analyzer
MEASUREMENT AND ITS AIM

Monitor Control Analyze

 HISTORY OF MEASUREMENTS
One of the oldest units of length measurement used in the ancient world was the 'cubit' which
was the length of the arm from the tip of the finger to the elbow. This could then be
subdivided into shorter units like the foot, hand (which at 4 inches is still used today for
expressing the height of horses) or finger, or added together to make longer units like the
stride. The cubit could vary considerably due to the different sizes of people.
A traditional tale tells the story of Henry I (1100-1135) who decreed that the yard should
be "the distance from the tip of the King's nose to the end of his outstretched thumb".
In 1791 the French National Assembly decided in favor of a standard that would be one ten
millionth part of a quarter of the earth's circumference. The survey which established the
length was made from Dunkirk, in France, to Barcelona, in Spain. The work was long and
difficult and was carried out during a time when France and Spain were heading to war. On
a number of occasions the surveyors were arrested as spies and nearly lost their heads! From
this survey a platinum 'end bar' was produced in 1799 which was known as the 'Mètre des
Archives' and was the master standard for the world's new measuring system, the so-called
metric system.
In 1875 the Metre Convention was signed by participating nations and the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) was established just outside Paris.
The use of metric weights and measures in trade only became lawful in Britain in 1897.
HISTORY OF MEASUREMENTS
 HISTORY OF MEASUREMENTS Absolute Relative
Basis of definition Date
uncertainty uncertainty
1⁄ part of one half
10,000,000
of a meridian, measurement 1795 0.5–0.1 mm 10−4
by Delambre and Méchain
First prototype Mètre des
Archives platinum 1799 0.05–0.01 mm 10−5
bar standard
Platinum-iridium bar at
melting point of ice 1889 0.2–0.1 µm 10−7
(1st CGPM)
Platinum-iridium bar at
melting point of ice,
atmospheric pressure, 1927 n.a. n.a.
supported by two rollers
(7th CGPM)
1,650,763.73 wavelengths
of light from a specified
1960 0.01–0.005 µm 10−8
transition in krypton-
86 (11th CGPM)
Length of the path travelled
by light in a vacuum
1983 0.1 nm 10−10
in 1⁄299,792,458 of a second
(17th CGPM)
MEASUREMENT AND ERROR
Measurement generally involves using an instrument as a physical
means of determining a quantity variable
Instrument: A device for determining the value or magnitude of a
quantity or a variable
With every measurement there are some terms associated like
Error= Measured value-True value
Accuracy
Precession
Sensitivity
Error
 INSTRUMENTS

• A device designed to facilitate measurements

• All instruments contain various parts that perform
prescribed function in converting variable quantity
or condition into a corresponding indication
• An instrument can be described in terms of
functional elements
WHAT IS AN INSTRUMENT
Basic Building Blocks of an instrument are

Sensor Output signal

Input signal
x(t) or y(t)
system
FUNCTIONS OF AN INSTRUMENT

20 ±2%

Signal
Physical Transducer Electronic Conditioning Signal Control action
Quantity Signal and Interpretation
Processing
A GENERALIZED INSTRUMENT
1. Transducer
2. Signal Conditioner and Transmitter
3. Display/ Recording Device
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
The first element in any measuring system is the primary sensor: this gives an
output that is a function of the measurand (the input applied to it).
'sensor' is
 a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it
into a signal which can be measured or recorded;
 For most but not all sensors, this function is at least approximately linear.
Some examples of primary sensors are a liquid-in-glass thermometer, a
thermocouple and a strain gauge.

'transducer' is
 'a device that transfers energy from one system to another in the
same or in the different form'.
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
SIGNAL CONDITIONER AND TRANSMITTER

 Thesignal generated by the transducer may

need to be amplified, attenuated integrated,
modulated and so on
In case of Remote sensing signal transmission is
also required.
Remote measurements and control is called
Telemetry
 SIGNAL CONDITIONER AND TRANSMITTER
Signal Processing Element. Signal processing elements exist to improve the quality
of the output of a measurement system in some way.
Electronic amplifier, which amplifies the output of the primary transducer or
variable conversion element, thus improving the sensitivity and resolution of
measurement.
Filter out induced noise and remove mean levels etc.
In some devices, signal processing is incorporated into a transducer, which is then
known as a transmitter.
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
Some measurement systems have one or two other components, firstly to
transmit the signal to some remote point and secondly to display or record the
signal if it is not fed automatically into a feedback control system.
Signal transmission is needed when the observation or application point of the
output of a measurement system is some distance away from the site of the
primary transducer
More often it follows from the physical inaccessibility or environmental
unsuitability of the site of the primary transducer for mounting the signal
presentation/recording unit.
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
The final optional element in a measurement system is the point where
the measured signal is utilized.
In some cases, this element is omitted altogether because the
measurement is used as part of an automatic control scheme, and the
transmitted signal is fed directly into the control system.
In other cases, this element in the measurement system takes the form
either of a signal presentation unit or of a signal-recording unit.
These take many forms according to the requirements of the particular
measurement application.
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
Pressure Converted to
displacement

Data Presentation Bourdon Type Pressure Gauge

Primary Sensing and Variable

Conversion element

Filled Thermal System

 Static
Characteristics

Desirable Undesirable

Accuracy Drift Dead Zone Static Error

Sensitivity Threshold

Repeatability Hysteresis

Reproducibly Creep

Resolution
ACCURACY
Closeness of the instruments reading to the true value
Accuracy can be improved by better calibration of the equipment
Accuracy is sometimes also linked with Precision of reading
PRECISION
It is related to reproducibility
To improve precision design and construction of equipment is changed
If a denotes accuracy, p the precision and c the calibration error then
a=p+c
Precision of a measurement also depends on the number of significant
figures
Though the instrument is showing the correct value , the precision of the
measurement will depend on the number of significant figures to which
the observer can read the value
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Rules for the significant Figures
 Addition and Subtraction:
 When two or more measurements with different degree
of accuracy are added, the result is only as accurate
as the least accurate measurement.
 One should avoid measurement techniques depending
on subtraction of experimental results because the
range of doubt in the final result may be greatly
increased
 Write the result rounded to the same number of
decimal places as the least accurate figure
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
If N1=826±5 = ±0.605% 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁2 = 628 ± 3 = (±0.477%), find
the percentage doubt in case of addition
If N1=826±5 = ±0.605% 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁2 = 628 ± 3 = (±0.477%), find
the percentage doubt in case of subtraction
Percentage doubt in case of subtraction is even more if the difference
is less.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Multiplication and Division
 In case of multiplication and division, after the operation round the result to the same
number of significant figures as the least accurate number.
 Example: a current of 3.12A is flowing through a resistor of 53.635Ω. Find the value
of voltage drop across the resistor to the appropriate number of significant figures.

Non zero digits are always significant

Any zeros between significant figures are also significant
A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are
significant.
SENSITIVITY
Definition:
 Absolute ratio of increment of the output signal (or
response) to that of the input signal (or measurand)
∆𝑞𝑜
 Mathematically: 𝑆 = ,
where 𝑞𝑖 and 𝑞𝑜 are the input
∆𝑞𝑖
and output quantities respectively.
Sensitivity of a Voltmeter
 It is expressed in ohms/volt
 A voltmeter is considered to be more sensitive if it draws
less current from the circuit which in turn, is ensured by
the high resistance of the voltmeter that has to be
connected in parallel with the circuit.
1 (𝑉)
 Sensitivity = 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠/𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑑 (𝐴)
SENSITIVITY
What is the sensitivity of a voltmeter having 50𝜇A FSD?
The required sensitivity is given by 20,000ohm/volt
Lab quality voltmeters should have a minimum sensitivity of 20kΩ/volt
LINEARITY AND NONLINEARITY
LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR DEVICES
When the actual output of the instrument oscillates with the same
amplitude around the best-fit straight line, non-linearity is expressed in
terms of amplitude or maximum deviation.
The actual output of the instrument may vary with the input value as in
figure (b) on previous slide. In this case non-linearity is expressed in
terms of the input value
Actual output may also be the combination of the above two cases.
Nonlinearity is expressed in terms of the higher value.
EXAMPLE: SENSITIVITY
The output of a temperature transducer is recorded over its full scale
range of 250C as shown below
 EXAMPLE: SENSITIVITY
∆𝑙 = 100𝐷/𝐹𝑆𝐷

Thus, 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.96 and maximum nonlinearity is 0.8%.

REPEATABILITY
The measure of agreement between results of successive
measurements of the output of a measurement system for repeated
applications of a given input in the same way and within the range of
calibration of the measurement system.
The tests should be made by the same observer, with same measuring
instrument on the same occasion and same calibration conditions
REPRODUCIBILITY
Closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of
the same physical quantity carried out under changed conditions of
measurement.
The related undesirable characteristic is drift
UNDESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS
Drift
Dead Zone
Static Errors
DRIFT
As variations occur in ambient temperature, certain static
instrument characteristics change, and sensitivity to
disturbance is the magnitude of this change.
Environmental changes may have two effects
 Zero drift (bias)…….removed by calibration
 Sensitivity drift/scale factor drift:
 Amount by which instruments sensitivity of
measurement varies with the ambient conditions
change
ZERO DRIFT AND SENSITIVITY DRIFT
ZERO DRIFT AND SENSITIVITY DRIFT
SOLUTION
ZERO DRIFT AND SENSITIVITY DRIFT
SOLUTION
DEAD ZONE
Four Phenomena
 Hysteresis
 Threshold
 Creep
 Resolution
DEAD ZONE
Hysteresis
 Not all the energy put into a system while loading is
recoverable upon unloading
 The loading and unloading curves do not coincide
because of consumption of some energy by the
 Internal friction of the solid
 External sliding friction between components of
instrument
 Instruments involving magnetization and
demagnetization
DEAD ZONE

Threshold
 The minimum input which is necessary to activate an
instrument to produce an output is termed as threshold

Creep
 The change of output with time following a step increase
in the input from one value to another.
DEAD ZONE-THRESHOLD
DEAD ZONE
Creep Recovery
 Change of the output following a step decrease in the applied input to the
transducer.

Resolution
 Even above the threshold input, an instrument needs a minimum increment in input to
produce a predictable output. This minimum increment is called the resolution of the
instrument.
 Smallest measurable change in input is similar to sliding friction while threshold
signifies the smallest input resembling the static friction.
DEAD ZONE
An analogue ammeter has a linear scale of 50 divisions. Its full-scale
reading is 10A and half a scale division can be read. What is the
resolution of the instrument
 0.1A

The dead-zone in a pyrometer is 0.125% of the span. The instrument

is calibrated from 800 to 1800 degree centigrade. What
temperature change must occur before it can be detected.
 1.25 degree centigrade
STATIC ERRORS
Human
 (Gross Errors)
 Misuse
 Observational Errors
Systematic
 Instrumental Error
 Inherent shortcomings
 Interference
 Multiple Earths
 Loading Effect
 Maximum Power Transfer
 Environmental Errors
Random also known as residual errors
TYPES OF ERRORS
Gross Errors
 Human Mistakes
 Improper use of an instrument
 Change in conditions of indicating instruments
 Adjusting the instrument incorrectly
 Parallax
 Zero setting
TYPES OF ERRORS
Systematic errors
 Instrumental Errors
 Remedy: Select suitable equipment
 Correction factor
 Calibration
 Environmental Errors
 Remedy: Controlled environmental conditions
 Hysteresis Loss
 Static (limitations) and dynamic (slower system) errors
 Linear/ Non Linear Errors
Random errors
 Remedy: Though random they still follow some rules, statistical
analysis can help improve the results
INSTRUMENTAL ERROR-INTERFERENCE

Series Mode Interference

INSTRUMENTAL ERROR-INTERFERENCE
INSTRUMENTAL ERROR-INTERFERENCE
INSTRUMENTAL ERROR-INTERFERENCE
UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS (PROPAGATION
OF ERROR)
Type A: By statistical Analysis
Type B: By given manufacturers Specifications
 Uncertainty

Lack of
Gross Errors Bias
Precision

Misuse of
Mistakes Blunders
Equipment
Observational
• Parallax Systematic
Errors
Random Errors • Interpolation Errors
Environmental
Instrument Errors
Errors
• Drafts
• Radiations • Leveling • Temperature
• Drift • Loading
• Pressure
• Zeroing
• Noise • Wear n Tear • Humidity
• Readability, • Hysteresis • Vibration
Resolution • Multiple earths
• Interference
RELATED PROBLEMS
An ammeter has a range of 0 to 30 A. the instrument gave the
following readings

Curren 0 5 10 15 20 25
t Flow
(A)
Ammet 1 4 12 14 22 28
er
Readin
g (A)

Determine the Nonlinearity of the instrument in terms of full scale

reading (FSR)