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Geeta Mohan
Cancer Biology
The word ‘cancer’ is derived from the word, ‘carcinos’
the Latin word for crab. It was Celsus who translated
the word. The word is a general term for a group of
diseases that can affect all parts of the body.
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell
growth with the potential to invade or spread to other
parts of the body. There are more than 100 types of
cancer, including breast cancer, skin cancer, lung
cancer, colon cancer, prostate cancer, and lymphoma.
Symptoms vary depending on the type.
Cancer Biology
Metastasis
• The malignant tumor cells from one organ can break
free, enter into the blood stream and are carried to
another site where they continue to grow. This
process of a primary tumor giving rise to a secondary
tumor is called metastasis.
• Metastasis is defined as the stage in which cancer
cells are transported through the blood stream or
lymphatic system.
• Such tumors are difficult to treat, as they are able to
spread to other parts of the body and cannot be
completely removed surgically.
Cancer Biology
The process of metastasis occurs in many steps
• In the first step the cancer cells break through the
basement membrane or capsule and invade the
surrounding tissue.
• The cells will detach from the main mass and be picked up
by the lymphatic or vascular circulation.
• The cells that are now circulating will lodge in another
tissue for some time. For example the cells traveling
through the lymphatic system they often lodge in a lymph
node. The cells that are circulating in the blood stream
must adhere or stick to the endothelial cells and pass
through the vessel wall into any organ or tissues.
• They produce enzymes to make the other organ or tissue
receptive and lodge themselves in a new
microenvironment.
• The must establish a blood supply to bring oxygen and
nutrients by secretion of angiogenesis factors.
All the above steps will happen provided the cells are not
killed by the immune system.
Cancer Biology
CLASSIFICATION OF CANCER
• There are various types of cancers that are known
to affect the human body. Malignant tumours or
cancers can be classified in two ways
• Based on the tissue, from which they are derived.
• Based on the part of the body where it first
develops.
Cancer Biology
Based on the tissue from which they are derived they are classified
as follows
• Carcinomas :The tumors arising from epithelial cells, either the
endoderm or ectoderm are said to be carcinomas. 80% of the
tumors belong to this category. The carcinomas appear on the
skin and in the lining of internal organs or glands. Example the
cancer of colon, lungs, prostate and breast cancer.
• Sarcomas : The tumors arising from the mesodermal connective
tissue are said to be sarcomas. They are less frequent. Example
the cancer of the bone, muscles and cartilage.
• Lymphoma and leukemia : The tumor of the haemopoietic cells in
the bone marrow are said to be lymphoma. The proliferation of
the leukocytes is called leukemia or blood cancer.
• Mesothelioma :The tumor of the mesothelial cells lining the
peritoneum and the pleura.
• Glioma : The tumors of the glial cells found in the brain.
• Germ cell tumors : The tumors are formed in the testis or ovary.
• Choriocarcinomas : The tumors in the placenta.
Cancer Biology
Based on the part of the body where it first develops they are classified
as follows
• Skin cancer : This is one of the most common forms of cancer that
effects the world’s population. The cancer of the skin is common as it
is exposed to the radiation of the sun and also to a number of
chemicals that are pollutants or in cosmetics.
• Lung cancer : is seen mostly in smokers and those working in
factories who are exposed to chemical fumes and dust. Lung cancer
also seems to be on the rise in non-smokers due to air pollution.
• Oesophageal cancer : is common among those who drink very hot
beverages and smoke, and also in alcoholics.
• Stomach cancer and intestinal cancers : is seen in those populations
who live on preserved food and have a low intake of fresh food in their
diets. The stomach cancer is also caused due to chronic ulcers,
consumption of alcohol and smoking.
• Liver and pancreatic cancer : Liver cancer is common in those who
are prone to infection such as Hepatitis. Pancreatic cancers are seen
as secondary tumours that are derived from stomach or duodenal
regions.
• Colon cancer : occurs in those who have a deficiency of dietary fibres
in their food. Those who live only on high fat foods, bakery products,
meat and processed food, ice creams, deserts etc and do not
consume leafy vegetables are prone to colon cancer.
Cancer Biology
b) Chemical Carcinogens
Several chemicals that cause cancer or initiate
carcinogenesis have been identified over the years and
researchers have confirmed their effects. Chemicals that
are carcinogenic are seen in the environmental pollutants,
food and food products, cosmetics and dyes, tobacco
smoke, pan and gutka, and in the hormones that are used
in birth control pills.
i.Environmental pollutants: effluents that are let off into
the nearby water bodies, smoke and particulate matter in
the air and wastes such as metals, acids, alkalis,
alcohols, phenols, cyanide compounds, detergents,
arsenic etc in the soil. Many of the chemical pollutants
are carcinogenic such as, paints and dyes, arsenic,
asbestos, chromium, lead, nickel, iron etc. The products
of coal and petroleum, polyvinyl chloride compounds, are
well known carcinogens.
Cancer Biology
• The cancer cells show a variation in their cell structure and cell organelles.
• The plasma membrane of the cancer cells is different. The plasma membrane is the
dynamic membrane which has on it receptors for hormones and enzymes. The
receptors for the growth hormones and differentiation are altered. Thus the cells do
not differentiate and show uncontrolled growth.
• The plasma membrane has on it surface markers which are glycoproteins Changes in
the surface markers are seen which does not allow the cell to be recognized by the
immune system and allows metastases.
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus are different. The membrane show deep folding
and bleb formation.
• The mitochondria increase in number; they however appear irregular and swollen and
possess fewer cristae.
• In few cells the golgi complex seem to be poorly developed except in secretory tissues
or glands where they are more in number and highly developed.
• The cells normally have a network of minute fibres and filament that allow mobility
and determine the shape of the cell. The microfilaments are reduced and disorganized
in a cancer cell. Example a fibroblast that is spindle shape become more compact and
changes its appearance.
• There is an enormous endoplasmic reticulum network in the cells and increase in the
amount of ribosomes as the cells are involved in making proteins rapidly to cope with
the tremendous rate of cell division. Polysomes are found in abundance.
Biochemical and Metabolic Variations in Cancer Cells
The cancer cells show an altered metabolism as compared to the normal
cells.
Cancer cells exhibit more rapid rates of uptake of nutrients than their
normal counterparts, indicating changes in the activity of membrane
transport mechanisms.
The cell surface shows an increase in number of negative charges
because of a large amount of glycosaminoglycans .
The cells show a loss of gap junctions and show electrical
uncoupling. This makes them independent and lose the capacity of
adhesion and contact inhibition.
The altered plasma membrane shows an easy diffusion of
receptors in the lipid bi layer due to the disorganization of
microfilaments.
There is an alteration in the content of glycolipid and glycoprotein
and there is a reduction of gangliosides and in their ability to
synthesize enzymes.
Certain proteins disappear in the cell membrane because of which
there is an increase in the sugar uptake.
Biochemical and Metabolic Variations in Cancer Cells
• Certain proteins disappear in the cell membrane because of which there is an increase in the sugar
uptake.
• Cancer cells release the intracellular enzymes into the surrounding medium as the cell becomes,
‘leaky’ due to a faulty cell membrane.
• Cancer cells carry on them new antigens different from what is seen on normal cells.
• The cancer cells produce enzymes or proteases that converts plasminogen to plasmin. Plasmin can
dissolve blood clots and can strip the cell membrane of the surface proteins that are exposed.
• The cancer cells show a different method of metabolizing iron and trace metal ions. The normal
cells have the glycoprotein called transferrin (high molecular weight) that transports iron into the
cell, and the iron binds to ferritin and is made use of in the cytochrome enzyme system. The cancer
cells secrete a low molecular weight glycoprotein, a growth factor similar to siderophore into the
medium. This has a higher affinity to iron and forms a complex outside the cell, which is then
transported inside easily. The cancer cells therefore show a faster rate of uptake of iron needed
for their rapid cell division.
• Fibronectin is a high molecular weight glycoprotein that is involved in cell adhesion between cells,
and between the cells and substratum. It also plays an important role in the morphology of the cell
as it influences the organization of the cytoskeleton, as well as their migration and locomotion. The
cancer cells show a reduction in the fibronectin content. This is the reason for the cancer cells to
change their shape, to be able to break away form the primary site and to move to a secondary
site.
• In cancer cells the division of chromosomes is highly faulty or full of errors. This is seen in the
karyotype of the cells. The activity of certain regulatory proteins associated with chromosomes
may be altered during malignancy. Thus the cancer cells exhibit abnormal patterns of protein synt
PREVENTION
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