GEOMETRIC MODELLING

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 Usinga CAD/CAM software effectively for
generating 3D models and various 3D views of
geometric model and controlling the 3D
modelling through sketch planes.

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 At the end of this lecture on geometric
modelling, you will be able to understand
following concepts:
1. Types of geometric models
2. Computer Graphics and Coordinate Systems
3. Sketching and sketch planes
4. Modelling entities and features
5. Modelling operations
6. Modelling strategies
7. Model Viewing
8. System modes

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 First objective of using any CAD/CAM system is
to create a geometric model of an object.
 The geometric model created serves as a first
digital representation of an object in PC aiding
later for various engineering tasks e.g. analysis
and manufacturing.
 This representation is well organized in the
model database and the contents of model
database is usually saved in the part file of the
model.
 What type of geometric model does we actually
create and what kind of digital representation
does a CAD/CAM system use?

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 CAD/CAM systems use the Solid Models. In other
words, a solid model of an object is created.
 A solid model is a comprehensive, unique, and
explicit representation of an object.
 An object has sides, edges and corners/vertices.
For instance, a cube has;
1. Six Planes/Faces
2. Twelve Edges/Sides
3. Eight Vertices/Corners
 Likewise, a solid model has faces, edges and
corners (as shown in next slide) corresponding to
faces, edges and vertices respectively.

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 3D modelling concepts are used to create a solid
model of an object such as parametrics.
 Concept of parametrics involves sketching a
geometry freely i.e. similar to freehand
sketching. Dimension may also be assigned at the
time of creating a model or later.
 This concept of parametrics gives the user a
freedom about dimensions while objects are
designed and modelled.
 As it is well known that CAD/CAM databases are
built to store the 3D definitions of a solid model.
 These databases are fully 3D, associative,
centralized and integrated.
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 Associativity concept indicates that new
information may be derived from user’s work
which has already been done. For example, if
the two ends of a point are given then the length
of a line and line orientation can be derived.
 The centralized concept implies that any change
in or addition to a geometric model in any of its
views may be automatically reflected in its
existing views or in any views which may be
defined later.
 The integrated concept involves utilizing the
geometric model of an object in all phases of
product cycle.

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 Although all CAD/CAM systems generate
parametrics solid models, CAD designer may
use different ways of generating solid
models.
 There may be three approaches which a
designer may choose from, to generate solid
models.
1. Primitives
2. Features
3. Sketching

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 Commencement of these three modelling
approaches is linked with the evolution of
solid modellers over the years.
 At early stages, solid modellers used to
generate models using primitives approach
only.
 Since the science and technology is
advancing, features along with primitives has
been used by various solid modellers.
 Sketching approach, 3rd one, is the result of
further development in the field of CAD.
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 When using primitives approach, a designer
views a solid model as a combination of
simple, generic and standard shapes and
these shapes are called primitives.
 Primitives include a block (box), cylinder,
sphere, cone, wedge, and torus.
 In primitive approach of designing, these
primitives are combined with the help of
Boolean operations such as union,
subtraction, and intersection.

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 Likewise, feature approach is same as that of
primitives approach except it replaces the
primitives with features and inserts Boolean
definition in the feature approach.
 In order to differentiate between these two
approaches (primitives and features), let us
create a hole in a block.
 With primitives approach, a block is created with
block primitive at first. Secondly, a cylinder
will be created in the right location and
orientation with regard to block created. Finally
(in 3rd step), cylinder will be subtracted from
the block.

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 With the same settings in mind (i.e. creating
a hole in a block), a feature approach will
act as follows:
1. Generating a block via block feature
2. Introducing a hole in the block by using a
hole feature in the right location and
orientation as per given dimensions.
 Therefore, 2nd step of feature approach
unites the steps 2 and 3 of the primitive
approach as far as above settings are
concerned.
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 Sketching approach is analogous to features
approach with one alteration. This alteration
emphasises that detailed and generic features
may be created starting from a sketch instead of
using predefined shapes only i.e. holes and ribs.
 For instance, extrusion, revolution, linear and
non-linear sweep, loft, spirals and helicals.
 In general, 2D operations (circle, rectangle, line,
curve, arc, spline, etc.) are used to sketch a
region or a cross section, followed by 3D
operations (extrusion, revolution, loft, sweep,
etc.) to generate a feature.

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 Use both ANSYS (Primitive Approach for
Modelling) and SolidWorks (Sketching
Approach) for creating following object:
 Apparatus Required: (A stopwatch)

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 A quick question; which of these three approaches should be used to
generate a solid model?
1. Primitives
2. Features
3. Sketching
 The logical answer to above question is the sketching approach, since it
acquires the best from the three approaches for designing a solid model.
 The sketching approach is nearly similar to feature approach with one
major dissimilarity i.e. user is more flexible with creating much more
features instead of being rigid with utilizing only available features i.e.
holes (hole feature), blocks (block feature), wedges, etc.
 The sketching approach allows the user to create more features than that
of feature approach itself.
 Sketching approach also allows the vendors to enhance the modelling
domain of their systems without needing to define and store various and
more features in the system libraries.
 So variety of features may be created leading to generate a solid model
via sketching approach.
 Therefore, when the features are needed to be created; sketch is the
starting point to have it.

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 On the other hand, primitive approach is the
least used approach.
 CAD users are not really fond of this
approach, since its various terminologies are
based on the set theory such as Boolean
operations.
 Furthermore, editing the solid models
created via this way is inefficient.
 For instance, if the hole created is desired to
be deleted then a cylinder is again required
to be added to plug the hole unless the solid
model is recreated.

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 Another crucial question may come in the mind;
which CAD/CAM system offers which approach?
 CATIA, I-DEAS and Unigraphics are provided with
all these three approaches. And a CAD/CAM
system is required to support these three
approaches to stay competitive.
 DELCAM provides the users only with primitive
approach for solid modelling.
 Newer systems i.e. Pro-E and SolidWorks provide
the users with sketching approach only to create
solid models. And they don’t accommodate
primitives and don’t offer Boolean operations.
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 Hence a sketching approach (as used widely by
CAD designers) involves selecting a sketch plane,
sketching a 2D profile, modifying the dimension
to update the sketch, and finally creating the
feature by applying the 3D operations.
 Sketch plane selected denotes the orientation of
completed model in 3D space.
 For instance, if front plane is selected then the
2D profile of the geometric model represents the
front view of resulting 3D model.
 And if top plane is selected then the same
profile stays as the top view of resulting model
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 As far as geometric construction is concerned, an
object and its geometric model may be classified
into three types which are as follows:
1. 2 ½ D*
2. 3 D
3. Combination of 2 ½ D and 3 D
 2 ½ D objects may further be classified into
three types which are:
1. Extrusion
2. Axisymmetric
3. Composite

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 An extrusion model has same cross section
with constant thickness in perpendicular
direction to the plane of cross section.

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 Anaxisymmetric model of an object has also
the stable and same cross section which is
revolved about an axis of revolution through
a range of angles between 0 and 360
degrees.

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 Onthe same note, a composite model is a
combination of many 2 ½ D models.

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 On the other hand, a 3 D object has no
geometric uniformity (same cross section) in
any direction.

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 When defining a sketch plane, a CAD user selects
an appropriate sketch plane by initiating
sketcher.
 Various CAD/CAM systems use only the sketcher
to generate the solid modelling and eventually
the solid model such as Pro-E and SolidWorks.
 Some CAD/CAM systems e.g. Unigraphics and
CATIA need the users to invoke the sketcher
specifically for geometric modelling.
 Sketchers helps the CAD designers construct the
geometric model up to a great extent in terms of
offering various sketching entities such as lines,
circles, and so on, as shown in following slide.

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 Sketchers are built and designed to read the
CAD users’ mind.
 Sketcher understand the design intent to a
certain degree. How?
 For instance, when a designer places the
cursor on or near a line, the sketcher flashes
the end point, mid point, etc. with respect
to closeness of that point to the cursor.
 Sketcher is also able to predict the
perpendicular and parallel lines when two
lines are given.
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 Pro-E has an intent manager (IM) which a
designer may turn on and off.
 SolidWorks provides the users with such kind
of predictions without an IM using a sketch
plane only.
 When additional sketch planes are required
to define geometric modelling other than
standard sketch planes such as Top, Front,
and Right, these planes should be created.
 These additional sketching planes are called
datum planes.
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 Datum planes may be created by various
ways, as illustrated in following screenshot.

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A sketch status is a crucial aspect of
sketcher. In other words, if a sketch (2D
profile) is not correctly defined, a solid
model may not be generated from that
sketch.
 Sketchers offer colour codes to alert the CAD
user for its current status.
 A sketch may exist in one of three states
after getting it created.
1. Under defined
2. Fully defined
3. Over defined

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 Anunder defined sketch is exhibited in blue
colour needing additional dimension to
define it properly.

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A fully defined sketch is displayed in black
requiring no additional dimension or it has
already been defined properly.

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 An over defined sketch is the one having
conflicting dimensions; this state of sketch is
displayed in red colour. In other words, few
dimensions mentioned need to be removed.

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 Ease of modifying the solid model is key to
fix WHAT-IF situations' during product design
in order to arrive at the best design.
 Parametrics help a CAD user modify the
geometric model of an object with great
ease.
 In other words, CAD/CAM systems provide an
ease to designer with model parametrization
automatically. This implies that a CAD
designer may alter the values of parameters
and invoke the CAD/CAM system to
regenerate and recreate the model.

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 Following Figure shows the essential
parameters for a solid model.

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 What is a parameter? What is a dimension? What
is the difference between parameter and
dimension?
 Parameter is a statistical term, which is
frequently used in quality related
measurements, implying any specification that is
measurable.
 Parameters create the template (full
representation/generalization) of a sketch.
 Whereas Dimension is the specification of a
sketch entity defined.
 Dimensions create a specific example of sketch.

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 For example, rectangle may be fully defined by length and
width in mm.
 Can we use the term dimensions for length and width?
 Yes
 Can we use the term parameters for length and width?
 Yes
 Can we derive the area of rectangle from its given
dimensions/parameters i.e. length and width?
 Yes
 Is this area derived, a dimension/parameter?
 Parameter
 Can we derive the perimeter of a rectangle?
 Yes
 Is this perimeter a dimension/parameter?
 Parameter

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 What are implications of relating various
parameters of a geometry sketched?
 High end CAD/CAM systems e.g. CATIA and
Unigraphics permit the users/designers to
get really involved in the process of defining
relations.
 One may find it complex to relate various
parameters in complex sketches, as usually
implemented in automotive industry.
 Parametrization in Pro-E and SolidWorks is
different.
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 Therefore, a sketch parametrization does not
usually unique. In other words, there are
multiple ways to parametrize the same sketch.
 Geometric relations between sketch entities may
give rise to many choices of parametrization.
 Regardless of the way a sketch is parametrized,
minimum parameters are always required to
fully define a sketch geometry.
 For instance, for Figure in slide 36, only five
parameters are enough to define this kind of
geometry.
 Moreover, we can add relations to between
dimensions for the Figure in slide 36.
 P3 = 0.5P1, P4 = 0.5P2, and R = 0.25P1

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 Pro-E and SolidWorks use the automation
approach. After creating a sketch, a designer
adds dimensions to it.
 Pro-E uses a two step approach.
1. Dimensioning the sketch leading to
generation of parameters
2. Modifying the sketch dimension by selecting
one dimension at a time to regenerate the
full sketch for final dimensions.

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 SolidWorks and its way of dealing with sketch for dimensioning
and parametrization is naiver.
 SolidWorks does not show the dimension to the designer as he
does not care too much about them.
 SolidWorks illustrates the sketch dimensions only.
 It permits the designer to dimension the sketch with the
assistance of dimension icon.
 Dimension modification window is popped up on clicking the
same icon. Hence it provides the final sketch with final
dimensions.
 Sketch parametrization provides the CAD designer with great
designing technique. In other words, designers sketch their
ideas with sufficient freedom without worrying about the
dimensions.
 Designers try to keep their sketch up to a reasonable sizes.
While finalizing the sketch, they closely look at the sketch for
dimension in order for accepting or modifying them. As an
example, a designer may round off a dimension of 4.45 mm to
4.50 mm. 42
 An investigation of CAD/CAM systems discloses/reveals that they all offer
a universal set of modelling features. These are as follows:

1. Extrusion
2. Revolution
3. Hole
4. Cut
5. Sweep
6. Loft
7. Fillet
8. Chamfer
9. Rib
10. Shell
11. Draft
12. Patterns
13. Spiral
14. Helix

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 An extrusion feature is used to create a
uniform thickness model. All it needs a cross
section and extrusion vector (direction and
distance, as exhibited in following Figure.

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A revolution feature is utilized to generate
the axisymmetric model. This feature needs
cross section, an axis of revolution, and an
angle of revolution, as illustrated below.

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A hole feature is intended for creating holes
in the model. It needs a hole diameter, a
length, and an axis to define orientation.
 A cut feature is selected to cut the material
from existing feature. This feature may
appear with different names in various
CAD/CAM systems. Cuts may have different
types e.g. extruded and revolved cuts. A slot
in model is also a form of a cut feature.

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A sweep feature is usually employed to
generate a model with a constant cross
section along a non-linear axis. This feature
is similar to extrusion with exception of
sweep curve to be non-linear. If this curve
becomes linear, sweep turns into extrusion.

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A loft feature is created in a geometric
model with a variant cross section along a
linear/non-linear axis. It needs, at least, two
cross sections.

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 The Fillet and Chamfer features are used
to amend the corners of the model.
Moreover, a fillet rounds the corner,
therefore, eliminating its sharpness.
Filleting a model is considered to be a
good engineering practice, since it
minimizes the stresses around the
corners.
 A chamfer feature helps a designer
generate a transition between two edges
of a model.
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A rib feature stiffens the model adding more
material in the model. This feature is some
how similar to extrusion feature. However, it
needs a line, faces to stiffen, and thickness,
as shown in following Figure.

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A Shell feature is used to carve out material
from a model. This feature needs a face to
shell and thickness.

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 A Draft feature is used to make a taper in the model
faces. For injection moulds, it is desired to create
drafts. The reason for drafting the moulds is enabling
us to remove the parts from the moulds. This feature
needs a draft angle (small one between 5 and 10
degrees) and the faces to draft.
 A pattern feature is a geometric array utilized to
repeat the geometry in a specific order. A pattern
may be rectangular (linear) or circular.
 A linear pattern needs a modeller to specify the
feature to be repeated, the distance between the
repetitions, and the number of repetitions. On the
other hand, a circular pattern needs the same (three)
specifications except a requirement for angle instead
of a distance.
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 Spiral feature is utilized to create
spirals/coils. The spiral needs a cross section
and a helix curve. Moreover, a helix curve
asks a modeller for a pitch and number of
revolutions.

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A Helix feature is used to generate the
helical springs. It needs a circular cross
section and a helix curve. A helix curve wants
a modeller to specify a pitch and number of
revolutions.

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 Geometric Modelling based on using features
and entities, depends upon what a CAD/CAM
system delivers to generate geometries or
engineering parts, products, and assemblies.
 Some CAD/CAM systems call first the feature
after sketching, to create the base feature
such as SolidWorks.
 Addition and subtraction to/from the base
feature are usually executed with the help of
other features, many times, to generate a
final model.

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 Many CAD/CAM systems e.g. Pro-E and
SolidWorks don’t permit a user to go for two
solids in a certain geometric modelling.
 These systems don’t offer “multiple bodies”
or “disjoint solids” during geometric
modelling.
 On the other hand, multiple solids may be
used concurrently by CATIA and Unigraphics.
 This approach of modelling multiple solids is
useful because a CAD designer may create
many solids during transitional/intermediate
modelling steps before combining them.

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 An investigation into creating multiple solids
reveals an error, as shown in next slide, when
multiple solids are placed apart from each
other in the modelling space.
 When creating any feature for any part during
geometric modelling, CAD/CAM user sketches a
cross section. This feature may be used as a base
feature or it is an existing feature that is
adjacent to the face of base feature.
 Hence a final model is generated in both Pro-E
and SolidWorks in this way.
 Pro-E and SolidWorks don’t permit the user to
create the multiple solids side by side.

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 In order to avoid this error, a proper
modelling strategy must be adopted which
involves creating cross sections (sketching)
and, therefore, features, which are adjacent
to or penetrate existing faces/planes.
 A rough way of handling the disjoint solids is
to create a web between disjoint solids, if
CAD/CAM system does not give the freedom
for creating multiple solids.

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DATUM FEATURES
 Geometric modelling is usually started with a
sketch leading to generated features with
various feature operations.
 Geometric modelling is completed, since more
and more features are created.
 A CAD/CAM system assumes that any geometrical
entity that is generated while a CAD user
sketches, is a portion of profile under
construction.
 Sometimes, an additional geometry of model is
created to define it fully. Such a geometry is not
deemed to be the part of existing geometry.
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 How may we convey the sketcher and
subsequently, the CAD/CAM system, not to
consider that geometry in a routine way?
 A concept is used called the reference
geometry (RG).
 A reference geometry may be defined as a
special type of geometry which is useful in
defining the other geometry.
 RG is not considered an ordinary geometry.
 For instance, let us consider the cross
section and axis for a nail/pin which have
been made via revolved feature.
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 Hence for a pin, the cross section is an
ordinary geometry which must be taken as
the part of considerable geometry. On the
other hand, axis is the reference geometry
that will never be considered as a part of
geometry to be featured for making a final
geometrical model.
 Moreover, a reference geometry is deemed to
be the part of the feature definition and it
may not be deleted unless the feature is
deleted first of all.

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 Reference geometry is recognized by the Datum
features.
 CAD/CAM systems usually provides the users with
following types of datum features;
1. Coordinate Systems (CS)
2. Points
3. Axes
4. Planes
5. Curves
 One must think of these datum features as
ordinary features, with the dissimilarity that
these don’t participate in sketch construction.

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 Let us now see, how do Pro-E and SolidWorks deal
with these datum features?
 Pro-E makes an extensive use of datum features.
 Pro-E has a wide range of these features under its
Feature Class menu.
 On the other hand, SolidWorks offers six datum
features under its reference geometry menu which
are as follows.
1. CS
2. Axis
3. Plane
4. Points
5. Centre of Mass
6. Mate Reference

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 A datum plane is used when nonstandard plane is
required for building a model. A CAD/CAM system
provides a user with a rich options of datum planes.
 A datum axis is used for various purposes including
the definition of axis of revolution for revolved
features or an axis for a circular pattern.
 A datum curve or point is used when curves or
points are needed in the model database which are
required to define the sketch. For instance, let us
take a set of points defining a spline curve. These
points are first created before creating spline. In
such a case, these points of spline are deemed as
datum points which are rigorously used in Pro-E.

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A datum coordinate system feature is useful
when a CAD/CAM system needs it
temporarily for the purpose of calculating
various entities e.g. length, mass properties,
etc.
 The required information for introducing a
CS is X & Y-axes and origin.
 For instance, an edge may be chosen as an
origin and two faces as X & Y-axes as shown
in slide.

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 Another way of having a datum CS is to
select a vertex as an origin and two edges as
X & Y-axes, as illustrated in following
screenshot.

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Geometric Constraints
 Geometric constraints or relations are utilized to define
the sketch.
 These constraints are of two types;
1. Geometrical; such as length etc.
2. Topological; such as two lines are always perpendicular
 In other words, these constraints are used to relate the
sketch entities with one another.
 For examples, the line length may be set to be a multiple
of length of another line. (See slide 36). Hence when the
length of latter line changes, the length of former line
changes accordingly, thereby, preserving the geometric
constraint.
 Moreover, equation may also be used to specify more
elaborate constraints.

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 To generate a final model, features are
added and subtracted one after the other.
 There are few questions on how a CAD/CAM
system handle all these features?
 What happens to a all features after having
created them?
 Do they stay individually in the CAD
database?
 CAD systems combine these features as they
are built consecutively.

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 After creating the base/first feature, the
next feature is generated as an
addition/subtraction to/from the base
feature and so on unless the final model is
created.
 In fact, CAD/CAM systems utilize Boolean
operations to combine various features
implicitly.
 The term “implicitly” implies here that you
don’t need to perform Boolean operations
yourself as a CAD user. CAD/CAM system does
it automatically.

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 These Boolean operations involve union,
subtraction and intersection.
 For instance, when extrusion is intended to
be executed, this feature is added to the
existing feature or solid.
 However, when a typical cut is used, the
resulting feature is subtracted from the
existing model or solid.
 Intersection happens as a supporting
operation.

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 Specialized CAD/CAM systems e.g.
Unigraphics, I-DEAS, and CATIA offer Boolean
operations explicitly.
 The term “explicitly” implies that CAD user
are allowed to use them under Edit/Tools
menu.
 CAD/CAM systems e.g. SolidWorks and Pro-E
don’t permit the users to use these Boolean
operations explicitly.

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A final solid is a combination of a series of
sketches and features. A sketch is usually
drawn to make 2D profile of an object.
 A 3D operation is then applied to transform
the 2D sketch into 3D feature.
 These 2D to 3D conversions are repeated
many times to produce a final geometric
model.
 In addition to above text, a sketch may be
considered to be the collection of curves.
 A curve may consist of a line, arc, circle,
chamfer or a spline.
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 For intricate solids, surfaces are created
from using curves before generating the
features for creating the final model.
 Hence a model database may consist of three
types of modelling classes;
1. Curves
2. Surfaces
3. Solids
 Some CAD/CAM systems e.g. Pro-E and
SolidWorks permit only the curves and
surfaces in order to define the sketch.
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 For instance, these systems (Pro-E and
SolidWorks) permit only a single solid to exist.
 On the other hand, CATIA and Unigraphics
provide the CAD users with the existence of
curves, surfaces and solids at the same time in
the model database.
 The existence of these three modelling modes
e.g. curves, surfaces and solids is referred to as
Heterogeneous Modelling.
 Heterogeneous modelling is deemed to be good
in terms of research and experimentation
activities in geometric modelling.
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A CAD/CAM system may appear to be
complex requiring proper understanding of
its basic concepts and philosophy and
training.
 A CAD/CAM system has a complex modelling
tool similar to other software systems such
as CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) and
FEA (Finite Element Analysis).
 CAD/CAM users must use these systems with
great care if they want themselves to be
efficient in using these systems.

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A CAD/CAM system may efficiently be used
via inventing a modelling strategy.
 A modelling strategy (planning) may be
defined as the sequence of thoughts about
the best, easiest, and fastest way to
generate a solid model of an object.
 In other words, modelling strategy is high
level thinking of anything that is needed to
be modelled on a CAD system.
 This strategy may be subjected to logical
alteration when executing it.
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 Another way of defining a modelling strategy is,
this is the way the CAD users organize their
creative thoughts.
 The development of a modelling strategy needs
efforts and proper brainstorming.
 This brainstorming leading to concerted efforts
may often involve answering various questions
relevant to following rubrics;
 Determining the model type and subtype
 It involves answering following questions;
1. Is it 2 ½ D or 3D?
2. If it is 2 ½ D then is it extrusion, revolution, or
composite?
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 Observing the geometric characteristics of model?
 Following question is usually raised under above
rubric;
1. Is the model symmetric with respect to one plane
or more?
 If so, then the CAD user may build one half of the
part and then he may generate the full model using a
Mirror entity.
 Selecting the model orientation in 3D space
 Following questions must be raised for above rubric
during brainstorming session;
1. How may the model be oriented in 3D space?
2. Which model view is suitable with which place i.e.
Top, Front, and Right?

81
 Selecting the model origin
 One must think of following questions;
1. Have we considered the model origin with regard to
coordinate system?
2. Where is actually the coordinate system in
modelling space?
3. Is it the bottom mid of the sketch or bottom left or
somewhere else?
 Avoiding unnecessary calculations
 Above rubric suggests us answering following
questions;
1. May a CAD system be used to calculate parameters
in an effort to save the time?
2. May a CAD user utilize the CAD system to perform
mechanical or thermal analysis?
82
 These rubrics leading to answer the logical
questions regarding them, may be practised
before actually jumping into the modelling an
object.
 It has been experienced that CAD user rush into
using a CAD workstation and start constructing a
model without getting them involved properly in
modelling planning/strategies.
 Modelling Wisdom tells us that more a CAD
designer rush into building a model, worse the
final modelling is. Therefore, a wastage of time
and money leading to worsen lead time of final
product.

83
 Therefore, it is suggested that a CAD designer
must spend few time to evaluate the object to
be modelled for developing a modelling strategy.
By this way, he will find the smartest, fastest
and the most technical way of creating the
model.
 After having brainstorming on the modelling
strategy, how does a modelling strategy look
like?
 Modelling strategy will provide the users with a
step wise approach to model an object.
 Moreover, each step will not be considered to
offer the high level details about dimension,
however, it must focus on high level planning.

84
 Although geometric modelling involves
creating the model database, model viewing
may play an influential role in displaying the
model on the screen.
 Moreover, modelling and viewing are
interrelated.
 Views are defined at various angle from
which a model may be seen.
 Observer changes the model position with
respect to the coordinate system, however,
the model maintains its original spatial
orientation.

85
A finite number of views may be generated
for a model. For instance, following model
may have six views in the next slide;

86
87
VRML Web Viewing
 VRML stands for “Virtual Reality Modelling
Language”
 Internet has a great impact on CAD/CAM as it has
on various other field.
 One of the great revolution which involves
viewing a model on a web browser without the
need of any CAD/CAM system who has generated
it actually.
 Is it not a significant merit?
 Marketing and mobile engineers has achieved lot
of benefits from this way of viewing the model.

88
 VRML assists us to display any CAD model in a
web browser.
 These models may be manipulated in addition to
just exhibiting them on web.
 For instance, any CAD model may be rotated in
browser window to investigate its other invisible
sides or views.
 For this web based viewing, a VRML plug-in is
required to be downloaded and installed in the
browser.
 This activity is fairly simple e.g. search the VRML
plug-in in any search engine such as GOOGLE to
attain VRML plug-in freeware (free or open
source software)

89
 Following website provides you with a plug-in
that is called CORTONA3Dviewer.
 http://www.cortona3d.com/cortona3dviewer
 Above plug-in is an example from various plug-in
for viewing CAD models.
 You, as students, are free to use any plug-in, you
think the best among others.
 Use internet browser for opening .wrl file.
 First of all, a CAD system is required to generate
a model to be viewed on a web browser.
 This model is needed to be saved in VRML format
from CAD system before using it on a browser.

90
 Sequence of steps for creating VRML file format
on SolidWorks;
1. Generate a model
2. File
3. Save as
4. File type
5. VRML
 Moreover, VRML file extension appears to be .wrl
i.e. for world.
 After having the .wrl file, please open the
internet browser such as internet explorer
preferably.

91
 Sequence of steps to open VRML file on internet
explorer.
1. Run internet explorer
2. File
3. Open
4. Browse
5. Select .wrl file
6. Enjoying viewing and manipulating it without
the need of CAD system, as shown the next
slide in the form of a screenshot.
7. Let us practice it with few .wrl files. (bring
your laptop or CORTONA plug-in to be installed
in classroom system )

92
93
 Modelling geometry and deriving drawings
are two dominant functions of CAD/CAM
software.
 These two functions are deliberately offered
by CAD systems.
 These functions are usually known as system
modes which are as follows;
1. Model/Assembly (that is based on
modelling)
2. Drawing
 One mode may be usually active at any one
time.
94
 Both model and drawing modes utilize the
existing model database.
 Model mode, when it is active, the result of
every modelling operation is saved in the
model database.
 However, drawing mode provides the user
with two options;
1. Local
2. Associative
 In the local mode of drawing, drawing
amendments remain local and they are not
supposed to affect the model database.
95
 On the other hand, associative mode of
drawing affect the model geometry and its
respective database if any change is made in
the drawing.
 Since the main purport of modelling mode is
to generate models, likewise, the main
purport of drawing mode is to produce
engineering drawings.
 As various topics have already been covered
on modelling mode, drawing mode needs to
be addressed here properly.

96
 Three activities are usually performed in the
drawing mode which are as follows;
1. Model Clean-Up
2. Documentation
3. Plotting
 Model Clean-Up is assumed to be boring and
time-consuming when a CAD designer makes use
of it.
 For instance, a designer must adopt the rules of
drawing when going to generate the
orthographic views of a model. In other words,
he needs to hide the drawing entities as per
drawing rules. Do you extend it with an
example?

97
 Hence a designer may face two problem
while working for model clean-up, as
declared below;
1. Overlapping Entities
2. Unrecoverable clean-up work
 Entities overlapping are posing a problem
hiding them, or keeping them blank, or
changing the some continuous lines in to
dashed lines.
 To avoid this problem, reliable algorithms
may be used to generate automatically the
hidden content of model clean-up.
98
 Second problem may come because the
clean-up work is usually not recoverable.
 For example, if the designer closes its work
in terms of drafting the views then he may
need to begin working on the same view
from scratch. On the other hand, there exists
a likelihood that a CAD systems may crash
while using it for generating views resulting
is loss in terms of time and work.
 To avoid this kind of problem, a designer is
usually advised to save its work frequently
while working on an active drawing session.

99
 After completing the clean-up work, model
documentation is usually achieved including
addition of dimensions, text notes, and
tolerances.
 CAD users are expected to have familiarity
with the standard rules of dimensioning and
tolerancing.
 CAD/CAM systems provide its users with rich
options in terms of menus and commands for
dimensioning and tolerancing.

100
 After documenting the drawing, plotting activity
is usually performed for the drawings which have
already been generated.
 There are available standard drawing sizes which
are supported by all the CAD/CAM systems.
1. Size A
2. Size B
3. Size C
4. Size D
5. Size E
 In addition, drawing sizes defined by users are
also always there to be used in order to avoid
surprises which are not expected by the plotter
when it actually plots on a paper.
101
 One of the important aspects in any CAD/CAM
system is that part of software linked with the
manipulation of geometric elements such as
points or lines etc.
 The graphic systems finalize the model
definitions using the graphic elements.
 These elements are often called during model
generation phase, one by one until the model is
generated.
 Since graphic elements are called before they
are actually added to the model, a CAD designer
can specify its size, its position and its
orientation.

102
 These specifications are essential to form the
model to the proper shape and scale.
 For this purpose various transformations are
utilized which are as follows;
1. Translation
2. Scaling
3. Rotation
 Each of these transformations is executed by
considerable mathematics such as matrix
algebra.
 Let us put this transformation into another but
similar context for our understanding;

103
 Geometrical model is constructed in a traditional
geometrical space that consists of Cartesian
coordinate system (CCS).
 This CCS is usually specified by X, Y, and Z axes.
These three axes are mutually perpendicular
helping us handle the geometrical information.
 For handling geometrical information, many a
times it becomes necessary to transform the
geometry.
 These transformation helps a designer convert
the geometry from one coordinate system to
another.
104
 The three types of transformations e.g.
Translation, rotation, and scaling may be
shown as;

105
 In order to understand each geometric
transformation, 2D coordinate systems may
be used for the sake of easy comprehension.
This 2D transformation will then be extended
into 3D.
 A point (P) may be located in 2D Cartesian
system by specifying the x and y coordinates
such as (x,y).
 These coordinates may be treated together
as a 1x2 matrix;

P=(x,y) = [𝑥 𝑦]
106
 For instance, the matrix (2,5) may be
described to be a point that is 2 units from
the origin in x-direction and 5 units from the
origin in the y-direction.
 The way of representing may be easily
extended to define a line (L) as a 2x2 matrix
specifying the x and y coordinates of the two
points of the line, as stated below;

𝑥1 𝑦1
L= 𝑥 𝑦
2 2

107
 Using the rules of matrix algebra, a point or line
(or a geometric element represented in matrix
notation) may be operated on by a
transformation matrix to yield a new element
i.e. point or line.
 For example, when a line is scaled after scaling
transformation, a new line either bigger (if it
was scaled positively or with a positive value) or
smaller (if it was scaled negatively or with a
negative value).
 TRANSLATION involves moving the element
from one location to another location.
 In case of a point, the matrix operation may be
written as;
x/ = x + m, y/ = y + n
108
Where x/ , y/ = Coordinates of the translated
point;
x , y = Coordinates of the original point;
m , n = Movements in the x and y
directions, respectively;
In matrix form, it may be represented as;
(x/ , y/) = (x , y) + T----------------(A)
Where
T = (m , n) = Translation matrix
 Hence any geometric element may be translated
in 2D space by applying the equation (A) to each
point that defines the element. For a line, the
transformation matrix my be applied to its two
end points.
109
Move Transformation
Example Statement
 Let us take a line with following matrix;
1 1
L=
2 4
 And we know the translational matrix for two
points of line to be equal to;
𝑚 𝑛
T=
𝑚 𝑛
 Let us assume that it is intended to translate this
line in space by 2 units in the x direction and 3
units in the y direction, as can be seen the
resultant line after transforming it, in next slide.
1 1 2 3 3 4
+ =
2 4 2 3 4 7
110
111
 SCALING involves enlarging or reducing the size of an
element. Scaling is not essentially done equally in
both x and y directions. For instance, a circle may be
transformed into an ellipse using unequal x and y
scaling factors.
 In matrix form, the points of a geometric element
may be scaled by scaling matrix as follows;
𝑚 0
(x/ , y/) = (x , y)*S = x*m, y*n = 𝑥 𝑦
0 𝑛
Where
𝑚 0
Scaling Matrix (S) =
0 𝑛
 In other words, scaling is achieved when the original
coordinates of a point of any element is multiplied
uniformly with the scaling factor.
112
 Therefore, scaling alters the size of an
element by specifying a factor “m” in x
direction and “n” in y direction. Scaling
affects the element position in space by
repositioning it with regard to the Cartesian
system origin.
 If the scaling factor is less than 1 then the
element size to be scaled is reduced and it
will be move closer to the origin.
 And if the scaling factor is greater than 1
then the element size is enlarged and will be
move farther away from the origin.

113
Scale Transformation
 Let us consider the previous example statement
having the original line, as formed in matrix below;
1 1
2 4
 Let us scale this line with a scaling factor of 2 i.e.
200% (=200/100). Hence the scaling matrix will result
in following form;
𝑚 0 2 0
S= =
0 𝑛 0 2
 Therefore, the resulting line after scaling will be
evaluated as follows;
1 1 2 0
Resulting Line =
2 4 0 2
2 2
=
4 8

114
115
 ROTATION is another important geometric
transformation.
 Rotation involves rotating the points of an object
about the origin by a specified angle (θ).
 When the value of angle is given to be positive,
the rotation occurs in the counter clockwise
direction.
 This type of transformation accomplishes two
tasks i.e. rotation along with moving the object.
 What is the matrix form of rotation
transformation?
 Let us derive it! (see the next slides)

116
117
 Final position and orientation of a geometric
element is strongly dependent upon the
angle of rotation and the base point about
which the rotation has to be done.
 Since the rotation transformation matrix
needs to be derived, consider a point (P)
positioned in the XY plane. This point gets a
new position (P*) after being rotated by an
angle (θ), as given in the following matrix
form,
P* = (x* , y*)

118
 The original position may be specified by looking
at the previous Figure in Slide 115.
x = r cosα
y = r sinα
 The new position (P*) may be specified as
follows;
x* = r cos(α+θ)
= r cosαcosθ – r sinαsinθ
x* = x cosθ – y sinθ
y* = r sin(α+θ)
= r sinθcosα + r cosθsinα
y* = x sinθ + y cosθ
119
 So, in matrix form, the rotation matrix (R) may be given as;

P* = [x* y*]

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= [x y]
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

P* = [P][R]

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
[R] =
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

 Above transformation is used to rotate the object in XY plane. Following

transformation matrices may be used for rotation of a geometric element in any
plane.

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
P* = [y z] ---------------YZ Plane
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
P* = [z x] ---------------ZX Plane
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

120
Rotation Transformation

 Let us take the same example of line (L) and rotate that line by an angle of 30 degrees.

1 1
L=
2 4

 Hence the rotation matrix may be given as;

𝑐𝑜𝑠30 𝑠𝑖𝑛30
R=
−𝑠𝑖𝑛30 𝑐𝑜𝑠30

0.866 0.500
R=
−0.500 0.866

 So the matrix form of the new line (L*) may be obtained, as can be seen below.

1 1 0.866 0.500
L* =
2 4 −0.500 0.866

0.366 1.366
=
−0.268 4.464

121
122
 Rotate the same line through an angle 45
degree and then -45 degree and represent
the final line graphically.
 Rotate the same line through an angle 360
degree and then -360 degree and represent
the final line graphically.
 Moreover, the rotational angle = + 360 degree
gives rise to identity matrix of following
form;
1 0
0 1

123
 REFLECTION/MIRROR is also an important
geometric transformation.
 This kind of transformation allows the copy
of object to be displayed about a line or
point i.e. origin.
 There may exist three cases/possibilities of
mirror transformation;
1. About X-Axis
2. About Y Axis
3. About Origin or Two Axes

124
 An example of these three possibilities are
being shown here in following Figure (Take
X=28 and Y=25; moreover about origin
transformation implies the transformation of
an object in 1st quadrant into 3rd quadrant
and vice versa).

125
126
 Let us find the Mirror Transformation matrix
when mirroring about X-Axis.
 Consider the Figure in slide 126.
P* = [X*, Y*] = [X, -Y]
 So, in matrix form;
1 0
[P*] = 𝑋 𝑌
0 −1
1 0
[M] = = Mirror Transformation Matrix
0 −1
 Hence the mirroring about Y-Axis gives rise to
following [M];
−1 0
[M] =
0 1
127
 Likewise the mirroring about the origin
should have following [M];
−1 0
[M] =
0 −1
 In general, an [M] may be written as follows;
+_1 0
[M] =
0 +_1

128
 Now consider the same and apply the three
cases of mirror transformation;
 Class Lecture Assignment in following
spreadsheet.
In spreadsheet

129
Concatenation of transformation
 Many time, it is required to combine the individual
transformation matrix in an attempt to achieve the
results.
 The combined transformations are called the concatenated
transformations.
 In such cases, the combined transformation matrix may be
obtained by multiplying the respective transformation
matrices, as can be seen below.
P* = [Tn][Tn-1][Tn-2]…[T3] [T2][T1]
 However, proper care must be taken of the order of the
matrix multiplication must remain same as that of the
transformation.
 What are the implications of this concatenated
transformation?
 From above question, a new concept is originated called
the homogeneous representation.
130
 In an effort to concatenate the transformations, all the
transformation matrices should be appeared in the multiplicative
type. As evaluated earlier, the translation matrix is additive in
nature while other transformation matrices are multiplicative.
 Following matrix form may be utilized to convert the translation
matrix (2D) from additive form to multiplicative form;
P* = (x*, y*, 1) = [x* y* 1]

1 0 0
= [x y 1] 0 1 0
𝑚 𝑛 1

 Hence the translation matrix in the multiplication form may be

delivered as,

1 0 0
[T] = 0 1 0
𝑚 𝑛 1

131
 The above representation is termed as the
homogeneous representation.
 In homogeneous representation, an extra
dimension (n) is mapped in space into an (n
+1).
 Therefore, 2D point (x , y) may be extended
by 3D point (x , y , 1).
 Graphic operations are significantly
facilitated by this type of extension where
the concatenation of multiple
transformations are easily carried out.
132
3D Transformations
 Translation, Scaling, and Rotation for 2D scenario may be extended to 3D
now by adding the numerical entries for Z axis e.g. p units movement of
point in z direction.
 The 3D transformation matrix will now take the form of a matrix which
has order;
 3x3 (for Scaling and Rotation)
 4x4 (only for Translation)

Translation
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
T = [𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 1]
0 0 1 0
𝑚 𝑛 𝑝 1
Or
1 0 0
0 1 0
T = [𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 1]
0 0 1
𝑚 𝑛 𝑝

133
Scaling
𝑚 0 0
S = [𝑥 𝑦 𝑧] 0 𝑛 0
0 0 𝑝

Rotation about Z-axis (XY plane)

𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 0
R= 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 0
0 0 1

Rotation about X-axis (YZ plane)

1 0 0
R = [𝑥 𝑦 𝑧] 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
0 −𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ

Rotation about Y-axis (ZX plane)

𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 0 −𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
R= 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 0 1 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
Mirroring
+_1 0 0
M = [𝑥 𝑦 𝑧] 0 +_1 0
0 0 +_1

134
 Rotation in 3D is clarified as follows;

135
136
 All the transformation discussed in earlier
slides may be practised by using a rapid
prototyping software (ZPrint).
 Please see the next slide

137
138