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Communication Systems
Third Edition
Louis Frenzel
Figure 14-1: Magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor. Magnetic field strength
H in ampere-turns per meter = H = I I(2 πd).
McGraw-Hill © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
14-1: Antenna Fundamentals
Radio Waves: Electric Field
An electric field is an invisible force field produced by
the presence of a potential difference between two
conductors.
For example, an electric field is produced between the
plates of a charged capacitor.
An electric field exists between any two points across
which a potential difference exists.
The SI unit for electric field strength is volts per meter.
Permittivity is the dielectric constant of the material
between the two conductors.
Figure 14-3: (a) Magnetic and electric fields around a transmission line. (b) Electric
field. (c) Magnetic fields.
McGraw-Hill © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
14-1: Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Operation: The Nature of an Antenna
If a parallel-wire transmission line is left open, the
electric and magnetic fields escape from the end of the
line and radiate into space.
This radiation is inefficient and unsuitable for reliable
transmission or reception.
The radiation from a transmission line can be greatly
improved by bending the transmission-line conductors
so they are at a right angle to the transmission line.
Figure 14-5: Converting a transmission line into an antenna. (a) An open transmission
line radiates a little. (b) Bending the open transmission line at right angles creates
an efficient radiation pattern.
McGraw-Hill © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
14-1: Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Operation
The ratio of the electric field strength of a radiated wave
to the magnetic field strength is a constant and is called
the impedance of space, or the wave impedance.
The electric and magnetic fields produced by the
antenna are at right angles to one another, and are both
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave.
Figure 14-14: The conical dipole and its variation. (a) Conical antenna. (b) Broadside
view of conical dipole antenna (bow tie antenna) showing dimensions. (c) Open-grill
bow tie antenna.
McGraw-Hill © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
14-2: Common Antenna Types
The Dipole Antenna: Dipole Polarization
Most half-wave dipole antennas are mounted
horizontally to the earth.
This makes the electric field horizontal to the earth and
the antenna is horizontally polarized.
Horizontal mounting is preferred at the lower
frequencies because the physical construction,
mounting, and support are easier.
This mounting makes it easier to attach the
transmission line and route it to the transmitter or
receiver.
Figure 14-18: Folded dipole. (a) Basic configuration. (b) Construction with twin lead.
McGraw-Hill © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
14-2: Common Antenna Types
Marconi or Ground-Plane Vertical Antenna
The one-quarter wavelength vertical antenna, also
called a Marconi antenna, is widely used.
Figure 14-22: Using a base leading coil to increase effective antenna length.
McGraw-Hill © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
14-2: Common Antenna Types
Directivity
Directivity refers to an antenna’s ability to send or
receive signals over a narrow horizontal directional
range.
The physical orientation of the antenna gives it a
highly directional response or directivity curve.
A directional antenna eliminates interference from
other signals being received from all directions other
than the desired signal.
Figure 14-25: Radiation pattern of a highly directional antenna with gain. (a) Horizontal
radiation pattern. (b) Three-dimensional radiation pattern.
McGraw-Hill © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
14-2: Common Antenna Types
Directivity
To create an antenna with directivity and gain, two or
more antenna elements are combined to form an
array.
Two basic types of antenna arrays are used to achieve
gain and directivity:
1. Parasitic arrays.
2. Driven arrays.
Figure 14-38: How a change in the index of refraction causes bending of a radio wave.
McGraw-Hill © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation
Optical Characteristics of Radio Waves: Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of waves around an object.
Diffraction is explained by Huygen’s principle:
Assuming that all electromagnetic waves radiate as
spherical waveforms from a source, each point on a
wave front can be considered as a point source for
additional spherical waves.
When the waves encounter an obstacle, they pass
around it, above it, and on either side.
As the wave front passes the object, the point
sources of waves at the edge of the obstacle create
additional spherical waves that penetrate and fill in
the shadow zone.
McGraw-Hill © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
14-3: Radio-Wave Propagation