Chapter 5

Pipe Flow Measurement

Dr. Anwar Johari

* Most practical fluid engineering problems
are associated with the need for an accurate
flow measurement.

* There is a need to measure

i. Local properties
- velocity
- pressure
- temperature
- density,
- viscosity etc
ii. Integrated properties
- mass flow
- volume flow
iii. Global properties
- visualization of the entire flow field

* We shall concentrate this lecture on velocity

and volume flow measurement.
 Velocity Measurement

* Average velocity over a small region or

point can be measured by several different
physical principles.

Listed in order of increasing complexity and

sophistication

1. Rotating mechanical device

a. Cup anemometer
b. Savonius rotor
c. Propeller meter
d. Turbine meter

2. Pitot Tube
3. Tube Electromagnetic current meter
4. Hot wires and hot films
5. Laser-Doppler anemometer (LDA)

Syllabus : Only Pitot Tube

 Pitot Tube
Pitot tube is used to measure velocity based on
pressure difference or pressure head.

A simple tube with L shape and installed in

the moving stream as shown in figure below.

If particle moves from A to in front of tube B, the

particle is decelerated to zero velocity.
Therefore, based on Bernoulli’s equation,
Total energy/unit weight at A = Total energy/unit weight at B

P 1 v2 Po 1 vo2
  zA    zB
g 2 g g 2 g

Since ZB = ZA and Vo = 0, then

Po v2 P
 
 g 2g g

It clear that pressure Po is higher than pressure P. We

know that ;

P gZ dan Po   g( Z  h )
Then

v 2 Po  P  g ( Z  h)   g Z
  h
2g  g g
Therefore, (theoretical velocity)

v 2g h
Application of pitot tube
1. Channel : as in Figure a

2. Conduit or pipe : as in Figure b or c

It has a sidewall holes to measure the
static pressure in the moving stream and
a hole in the front to measure stagnation
pressure. Instead of measuring both
pressures separately, it is customary to
measure their difference with, say a
transducer

The value of v calculated through the above

equation is called theoretical value. However, the
actual value is calculated as

v  c 2 gh
c : equipment constant (c = 1 if Re > 3000 for
pitot- static tube and depends on types of
pitot tubes)
h : head difference measured
TYPES OF PITOT TUBES
 Example
Tiub pitot-statik digunakan untuk mengukur halaju
udara dan dipasangkan bersama saluran angin dan
manometer yang menunjukkan perbezaan turus
sebanyak 4 mm air. Ketumpatan udara adalah 1.2
kg/m3. Kira halaju angin dengan anggapan c = 1.0.

Halaju Udara

v  c 2 gh

 w 
h  0.04 m air  0.004  
 u 
 1000 
 0.004 x    3.333 m udara
 1.2 
maka
v 2 x 9.81 x 3.333
 8.09 m / s
Volume Flow Measurement
It is desirable to measure the integrated mass
or volume passing through a duct. 2 devices
are available;

The devices splits into two classes:

mechanical instruments and head loss
instruments

* The mechanical instruments measure

actual mass or volume of fluid

* The head loss devices obstruct the flow

and cause a pressure drop

1. Bernoulli’s type device

- Thin plate orifice
- Flow nozzle
- Venturi tube

2. Friction loss devices

- Capillary tube
- Porous plug
Orifice
An opening in a vessel, through which the liquid flow
out is known as an orifice.

An orifice may be provided in the vertical side of a

vessel or at the base

There are many types of orifices, depending upon

their size, shape and nature of discharge.

1. According to size
a) Small orifice
b) Large orifice

2. According to shape
a) Circular orifice
b) Rectangular orifice
c) Triangle orifice

3. According to shape of the edge

a) Sharp-edged orifice
b) Bell-mouthed orifice

4. According to nature of discharge

a) Fully submerged orifice
b) Partially submerged orifice
The continuous stream of a liquid that comes
out or flow out of an orifice is known as the
jet of water

The liquid, in order to flow out through the

orifice, move towards the orifice from all
directions.

It may noted that the liquid loss some energy,

while taking the turn

The jet of water after leaving the orifice, get

contracted and the maximum contraction take
place at a section slightly on the downstream
side of the orifice and such section is known
as Vena Contracta (C-C)
 Consider a tank as shown below:

Based on Bernoulli's equation between A and B,

then (tank base as a datum)

2
PA 1 v A PB 1 v 2B
  zA    zB
g 2 g g 2 g
Since ZA - ZB = h, VA = 0, VB = V and PA = PB

Velocity Jet , V  2 g h Terricelli theory

Then

Q A 2g h Theoretical flow rate

In practice, the actual flow rate is less than
theoretical flow rate,
Coefficient = actual/theory

1. Coefficient of Contraction, Cc

The value varies and depends on the available

head of liquid, size and shape of orifice. An
average value is 0.97
Area of Jet at Vena Contracta
Cc 
Area of Orifice

Actual Area of Jet A'  Cc A

2. Coefficient of Velocity, Cv

The Cv varies with different shape of edges

of the orifice. An average value is 0.64

Actual Velocity at VenaContracta

Cv 
Theoretical Velocity at Orifice

Actual Velocity, V '  Cv 2 gh

 3. Discharge Coefficient, Cd

The ratio of a actual discharge through vena

contracta to the theoretical discharge. The
value of coefficient varies with the values Cc
and Cv. An average value of Cd is 0.62.

Actual Disch arg e

Cd 
Theoretical Disch arg e
Actual Velocity Actual Area
 x
Theoretical Velocity Theoretical Area
 C v x Cc

QActual  Cc A x Cv 2 gh

or
QActual  Cd A 2 gh
 Experimental Method for Hydraulic
Coefficient

If an orifice is not at a base, the actual velocity of jet

is obtained through;

X  Vt  (1)
1 2
Y  gt  (2)
2
 Actual V

Since theoretical value of velocity is;

V  2 gh Theoretical V

Therefore,
Example
Water is flowing through a sharp-edge orifice
with 50 mm diameter fitted at 4.5 m below
surface. Determine discharge coefficient if
flow rate is 11.45 dm3/s. If an average
pressure inside the orifice is 26.5 kN/m2,
calculate contraction coefficient. Neglect any
losses.

Solution

DIY
 Contoh
Satu orifis bulat yang luasnya 650 mm2 dibuat
pada sisi tegak sebuah tangki. Jika jet jatuh pada
jarak 0.5 m secara tegak, manakala 1.5 secara
mengufuk dan kadaralirnya 0.10 m3/min,
tentukan daya tindakbalas mengufuk jet pada
tangki.

x = 1. 5 m y = 0.5 m
2
gx
V
2y
g x2 9.81 x 2.25
V   4.7 m / s
2y 2 x 0.5
Tindakbalas mengufuk = kadar perubahan momentum
Jisim
 x halaju yang diterima
saat

0.1
m   A V   Q 10 x  1.67 kg / s
3

60
Oleh yang demikian, tindakbalas jet
= 1.67 kg/s x 4.7m/s
= 7.85 N
Contoh
Sebuah tangki yang tingginya 1.8 m dan
terletak di atas tanah diisi penuh dengan
air. Terdapat satu orifis pada sisi tegak
tangki tersebut pada kedalaman h mm di
bawah permukaan air. Cari nilai h supaya
jet jatuh ke tanah pada jarak maksimum
dari tangki tersebut.

Solution

DIY
Contoh
Kedalaman air di dalam sebuah tangki ialah
1.8 m dan di permukaannya adalah udara
bertekanan 70kN/m2 lebih tinggi daripada
tekanan atmosfera. Cari kadaralir dalam unit
m3/s yang keluar melalui orifis berdiameter
50 mm yang terletak di bahagian bawah
tangki seperti ditunjukan dalam rajah di
bawah. Diberikan Cd bersamaan dengan 0.6.
Contoh

Sebuah meter orifis terdiri daripada orifis

berdiameter 100 mm di dalam sebatang paip
berdiameter 250 mm. Meter tersebut
mempunyai pekali kadaralir 0.65. Paip
bertekanan mengalirkan minyak yang
mempunyai berat tentu 0.9 dan perbezaan
tekanan di antara kedua-dua belah plat
orifisdiukur oleh satu manometer raksa,
sambungan ke tolok diisi dengan minyak.
Jika perbezaan aras raksa di dalam tolok
ialah 760 mm, hitung kadaralir minyak di
dalam talian paip tersebut.
Large Orifice

The velocity of a liquid, flowing through an

orifice, varies with the available head of
liquid.

When the liquid is flowing through a large

orifice, the velocity of the liquid particles
will not be constant, due to considerable
variation of heads along the head of the
orifice.

For square orifice – Front View

Element area = Bdh

Velocity through element = (2gh)1/2

Flow rate through element = Area x Velocity

 B 2 g x h1/ 2 x dh

For the whole opening, integrate from h = H1 to

h = H2

H2
Q  B 2g H1
h1 / 2 dh

Then, the flow rate is;

 B 2g H 2  H1 
2 3/ 2 3/ 2

3
.
Example (Square orifice)

An orifice is fitted at 0.4 m below surface water and its

opening is 0.7 m width and 1.5m height, calculate the
theoretical flow rate. What is the error if we consider
the system as a small orifice
Notch and Weir
A notch may be defined as an opening on
one side of a tank or reservoir, like a large
orifice, with the upstream liquid level below
the top edge of the opening as shown below.

There are many types of notches depending

upon their shapes such as;

1. Rectangular notch
2. Triangle notch
3. Trapezoidal notch
5. Steeped notch

A weir is a structure, used to dam up a

stream or river, over which the water flows.
The only difference between a notch
and a weir is that the notch is of small
size but the weir is of a bigger one.

Moreover, a notch is usually made in a

plate whereas a weir is usually made
of concrete.
 Element Area = bdh
Velocity through element = 2gh

Flow rate through element = Area x Velocity

= bdh 2gh

Integrate from h = 0 to h = H, then;

Q  2g 0 b h 1 / 2 dh
H

a) If notch is rectangular shape (b constant),

then;
2
Q  b 2g 0 h dh  b 2g H 3 / 2
H 1/ 2

3
b) If notch is triangular shape, then ;


b  2 (H  h ) tan
2
 
Q  2 2g tan ( ) 0 (H  h ) h 1 / 2 dh
H

2
8  5/ 2
 2g tan ( ) H
15 2

c) If notch is trapezoidal, it is a combination

of rectangular and triangular.

2 3/ 2  4   
Q 2g H b  tan   H 
3  5 2 
d) If notch is a stepped notch, it is a
combination of rectangular notches

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

All the above flow rates (notches and

weir) must be multiply with discharge
coefficient to obtain the actual flow
rates.
 Pipe Flow Meter
* Three of the most common devices used to
measure the instantaneous flow rate in pipes
are orifice meter, nozzle meter and venturi
meter
 Venturi Meter

Based on Bernoulli's equation between entrance

and throat;

P1 v12 P2 v 22
  z1    z2
g 2g g 2g

By neglecting all losses and system is horizontal

then; v2  v2 P  P
2 1
 1 2

2g g
Based on continuity equation;
a1v1 = a2v2
a1
v 2  v1
a2
Substituting into the above equation;

 a 2
  P1  P2 
v1  2 1  2g 
2 1

 a2   g 
a2   P1  P2 
v1  2g  g 
(a 1  a 2 )  
2 2


Therefore, flow rate is;

a1 a 2   P1  P2 
Q  a 1 v1  2g  g 
(a 1  a 2 )  
2 2


 a 1 v1 
a1 a 2
2g H
(a 1  a 2 )
2 2
  P1  P2 
H   
 g 

If a ratio a1/a2 = m, the above equation becomes;

2gH
Q  a1
(m 2 1)

For the actual flow rate, then the equation must

be multiplied with discharge coefficient, Cd

2 gH
Qactual  Cd a1
(m2 1)
Therefore,
H can be measured through manometer fluid
measurement or reading. Therefore the
equation of flow rate through venturi

Based on Bernoulli equation;

 P1  P2 
H   
 g 
Based on manometer reading;

 wg 
H  x  1
 w 
Then;

Cd a1  wg 
Qactual  2 gx  1
m 2

1  w 
 Orifice Meter

2(p1  p2 )
Qactual  CoQideal  CoAo
(1   )
4

Area of the hole in the orifice plate;

A0  d / 4
2
 Nozzle Meter

2( p1  p2 )
Qactual  CnQideal  Cn A n
(1   )4

Area of the hole;

An  d 2 / 4
 Venturi Meter

2( p1  p2 )
Qactual  CVQideal  CV AT
(1   )4

Area of the throat;

AT  d / 4 2
Example

A 75 mm diameter horizontal pipe fitted

with a venturi is flowing oil with specific
gravity of 0.9 and pressure difference
between entrance and throat is 34.5 kN/m2.
If m and discharge coefficient is 4 and
0.97, respectively, determine the oil flow
rate in the pipe.
Example
A venturi of 300 mm diameter
entrance, 100 mm diameter of throat
and 0.98 discharge coefficient, Cd, is
used to measure water flow. The
venturi is equipped with mercury
manometer. Calculate the flow rate
of water if the level of mercury in the
manometer arm is 55 mm.
Inclined Venturi

C d A1   P1  P2  
Q 2g    Z1  Z 2  
(m  1)   g 
2

Or;
  wg  
1  Z1  Z 2  
Cd A1
Q 2 g x
(m 2  1)   w  
P1 V12 P2 V22
  Z1    Z2
w 2g w 2g
 P  P2  
V22  V12  2 g  1   Z1  Z 2 
 w  
Q1  Q2
A1V1  A2V2
 A1   A1 
V2  
 A V1 m
 A 
 2   2 
 mV1
  P1  P2  
V1 
1
 2 g    Z  Z 
2 
m 2
1    w 
1

Q  C d A1V1
  P1  P2  

C d A1
 2 g    Z  Z 
2 
m 2

1   w 
1

Based on Manometer
Left hand side
Px  P1  wZ1  y 
Right hand side
Px  P2  wZ 2  y  x   wg x
Then
P1  wZ1  y   P2  wZ 2  y  x   wg x
P1  P2  wg 
 Z1  Z 2   x
 w  1

w  
Therefore
C d A1   wg 
Q  2 gx   1 

m 2
1  
 w
 
Contoh
Sebuah meter venturi yang tegak mengukur aliran
minyak yang mempunyai graviti tentu 0.82. Meter
tersebut mempunyai diameter 125 mm di tempat
masuknya dan diameter 50 mm di bahagian lehernya.
Di tempat masuk dan leher terdapat tolok tekanan.
Tolok tekanan ini berada setinggi 300 mm dari tempat
masuk. Jika pekali meter tersebut ialah 0.97, cari aliran
dalam unit m3/s apabila perbezaan tekanan ialah 27.5
kN/m2.
Contoh
Bekalan air ke pemanas gas mengecil daripada
diameter 10 mm di A ke diameter 7 mm di B.
Jika paip adalah mengufuk, hitung perbezaan
tekanan di antara A dan B apabila halaju air di
A ialah 4.5 m/s. Perbezaan tekanan ini
mengendalikan kawalan gas melalui
sambungan ke sebuah silinder mengufuk.
Omboh berdiameter 20 mm bergerak di dalam
silinder ini. Dengan mengabaikan geseran dan
luas omboh pada rod penyambung, berapakah
daya yang bertindak pada omboh.
Example
A venturi meter fitted to a horizontal pipe of
30 cm diameter has its throat of 10 cm
diameter. Water is flowing through the pipe
under pressure of 245.25 kN/m2 and vacuum
gauges at the throat reads 50 cm of mercury.
If the losses due to friction between inlet and
throat of the meter is 5% and Cd is 0.98 then
find the velocity of flow and discharge
through the pipe.
Contoh
Kerosin (SG=0.85) dialirkan melalui sebuah meter
venturi dengan kadaralir 18 m3/jam dan 180 m3/jam.
Diameter paip dan leher meter venturi masing-masing
bernilai 0.1 m dan 0.06 m. Diberi ketumpatan air ialah
1000 kg/m3 (pada 25oC)

a) Berdasarkan kepada rajah, terbitkan persamaan

2P1  P2 
Q  A2
  A 2 
 1   2  
  A1  

b) Dengan menggunakan persamaan di atas, kira

julat perbezaan tekanan P1-P2, yang diperlukan
untuk mengukur kadaralir tersebut. Anggapkan
Cd = 1.0.

1 2

D2=0.06m
D1=0.1m
 P1 V12 P2 V22
a)   Z1    Z2
g 2 g g 2 g
Z1  Z 2
P1 V12 P2 V22
  
g 2 g g 2 g
1
 2

P1  P2   1 V22  V12 
V22   V1  
2

 1    
2   V2  

2P1  P2 
V22 
  V1  
2

 1    
  V2  
Q Q
V1  V2 
A1 A2
Jadi
2P1  P2  2P1  P2 
2
 Q 
   
 A2    Q  
2
  A2  
2

     1    
 1   1     A1  
A
  Q  
   
  2  
A

2P1  P2 
Q  A2
  
2


 1  
A2
 
  A1  

 18 m3
Q1   0.005
b) 3600 s
180 m3
Q2   0.05
3600 s
 ker o sin  0.85 x1000  850kg / m 3

A2  0.062  2.83x10 3 m 2
4

A1  0.12  7.85 x10 3 m 2
4
Jadi
Aliran Q terkecil
 Q     A2  
2 2

P1  P2    1    
 A2  2   A1  
 0.005   850    2.83 x10 
2 3
 3    1   3

 2.83 x10   2    7.85 x10 
 1.15 kPa
Aliran Q terbesar
 Q     A2  
2 2

P1  P2    1    
 A2  2   A1  
  850    2.83 x10 
2 3
 0.05
 3    1   3

 2.83 x10   2    7.85 x10 
 115 kPa
Maka
1.15 kPa  P1  P2  115 kPa